Fuel Cell basic principle and operation: A fuel cell is an electrochemical device that

produces electricity by means of a chemical reaction. The major difference between batteries
and fuel cells is that, fuel cells can produce Electricity as long as fuel is supplied which does not
require recharging and also rundown like batteries. The first fuel cell was built by Sir William
Robert Grove in 1846.

The hydrogen fuel supplied to the fuel cell consists of two hydrogen atoms per molecule
chemically bonded together in the form H2. This molecule includes two separate nuclei, each
containing one proton, while sharing two electrons. The fuel cell breaks apart these hydrogen
molecules to produce electricity as explained below.
The hydrogen molecule breaks into four parts at the anode due to the chemical reaction
releasing hydrogen ions and electrons. The oxygen or air is passed over the cathode. A catalyst
speeds the reaction and an electrolyte allows the two hydrogen ions (protons) to move to the
cathode. The flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit is
results in generation of electricity.
The negatively charged oxygen atoms are balanced by the positively charged hydrogen
atoms at the cathode and the combination produces H2O (or water). The chemical reaction
taking place in a fuel cell is

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 15

Fuel Cell Characteristics : The fuel cell converts the Gibbs free energy of a chemical
reaction into electrical energy in the form of electrons under isothermal conditions. The
maximum electrical energy for a fuel cell operating at constant temperature and pressure is
given by the change in Gibbs free energy

where
n = number of electrons produced by the anode reaction
F = Faraday’s constant = 96,485C/mol
E is the reversible potential.
The Gibbs free energy change for the reaction at standard condition of 1 atmospheric pressure
and 25°C is
H2+ (1/2)O2 H2O(l)
The maximum reversible potential is s given by the Nernst equation as follows:

Where

T is the temperature in Kelvin,

R is the specific gas constant,
CH, CO and CH2O are theconcentrations
or pressures of the reactants and
products
Types of Fuel Cells : Fuel cells are
classified primarily by the kind of
electrolyte employed in it. This classification determines the kind of electro-chemical reactions
that take place in the cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the
cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors. Several types of fuel cells are

1 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)

2 Proton Exchange Membrane or Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) or
Proton Exchange Membrane or Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) or
Solid Polymer Membrane Fuel Cell (SPMFC)
3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC)
4 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)
5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)
6 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 16

 Fuel Cell Common Operating Typical Electrical
Applications Advantages Challenges
Type Electrolyte Temperature Stack Size Efficiency
• Backup Power
Polymer • Solid Electrolyte Reduces
• Portable Power • Expensive Catalysts
Electrolyte Corrosion & Electrolyte
Perfluorosulfoni • Distributed • Sensitive To Fuel
Membrane Around 80°C 80 kW < 40% Management Problems
c Acid Generation Impurities
Fuel Cell • Low Temperature
(PEMFC) • Transportation
• Quick Start-Up & Loading
• Specialty Vehicles
• Sensitive to Co2 in Fuel &
• Wider Range of Stable
Aqueous • Military Air
Materials Allows Lower
Alkaline Fuel Potassium • Space • Electrolyte Management
< 80°C 1–100 kW 60% Cost Components
Cell (AFC) Hydroxide • Backup Power (Aqueous)
• Low Temperature
(KOH) • Transportation • Electrolyte Conductivity
• Quick Start-Up
(Polymer)
Phosphoric • Expensive Catalysts
• Distributed • Suitable for stationary
Acid Fuel Cell Phosphoric Acid 150°–200°C > 250 kW 40% • Long Start-Up Time
Generation applications
(PAFC) • Sulfur Sensitivity
• Emission-free, methanol's • Selection of methanol
Direct
low cost, facile shipping, concentration, current
Methonol up to 70 • EV/HEVs, small
Methonol 90°–120°C ~30% low operating density, air humidity, cell
Fuel Cell kW portable devices
temperatures, high energy orientation, membrane
(DMFC)
density, thickness, cell design,
• High Temperature
Molten Molten Lithium,
• High Efficiency Corrosion And Breakdown
Carbonate Sodium, And/Or • Electric Utility
600°–700°C ➢ 250 kW 50% • Fuel Flexibility Of Cell Components
Fuel Cell Potassium • Distributed Generation
• Hybrid/Gas Turbine Cycle • Long Start-Up Time
(MCFC) Carbonates,
• Low Power Density
• High Efficiency • High Temperature
Solid Oxide • Auxiliary Power
Yttria Stabilized • Fuel Flexibility Corrosion And Breakdown
Fuel Cell ~1,000°C 1 KW–2 MW 60% • Electric Utility
Zirconia • Solid Electrolyte of Cell Components
(SOFC) • Distributed Generation
• Hybrid/Gas Turbine Cycle • Long Start-Up Time

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 15

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 15
Operation of PEMFC : Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC), also called Proton
Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC), use a proton-conducting polymer membrane (Nafion) as
the electrolyte. Hydrogen is used as the
fuel. These cells operate at relatively low
temperatures and can quickly vary their
output to meet shifting power demands.
PEMFC consists of membrane, catalyst
layers (anode and cathode), and diffusion
media together form the membrane
electrode assembly (MEA) of a PEMFC as
shown below:

Modeling of PEMFC :PEM fuel cells are

currently the most promising type of fuel
cell for use in automobiles, EV and HEVs.
PEMFCs operate at 160 to 195 ºF (70 to 90 ºC) and a pressure of 15 to 30 psig (1 to 2 barg). Each
cell can produce up to about 1.1 VDC.PEM fuel cells react hydrogen with oxygen as explained
below :
The reactions at the anode are:

The reaction at the cathode is:

The overall cell reaction is:

The modeling of PEMFC involves following models:

a) Anode and Cathode (reactants) Flow Model : In these models the dynamically varying
pressure of the reactant gas flows (hydrogen and air) are calculated as follows -

Where
P = Power of the fuel cell stack
VFC = Voltage of each cell
18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 16
 b) Membrane Hydration Model :This represents the process of water transfer across the
Membrane. Dry membranes reduce proton conductivity and flooded ones block the pores in
the electrodes leading to high voltage losses. Adjustable parameter ψ is used as follows
ψ = 14 under ideal condition of 100% relative humidity.
ψ = 22 or 23 under over saturated conditions
c) Stack Voltage Model : It helps to calculate the stack voltage as a function of stack current,
reactant partial pressures, cell temperature, and membrane humidity using a combination
of physical and empirical relationships
VFC = N(ENernst – L)
Where
N = Number of cells in a fuel cell stack
L = Voltage Losses = ΔVActivation +ΔVOhmic+ ΔVConcentration
Note :

i. psig means measurement of pressure with respect to atmospheric pressure in Pounds Per
Square Gauge(psig) or psi. It is not an SI unit. SI unit of pressure is Pascal (Pa). 1 pa = 1
N/m2.

ii. The key difference between bar and barg is that bar indicates absolute pressure, whereas
barg indicates gauge pressure
Reformers : The methanol, ethanol or gasoline are used as a fuel and reforming it on-board into
hydrogen for the fuel cell. The reformer is a fuel processor that breaks down a hydrocarbon, such
as methanol, into hydrogen and other byproducts. The advantage is ease of handling of
hydrocarbon fuel compared to that of hydrogen gas.
The advantages of PEM fuel cells are as follows:

1 Tolerant to carbon dioxide. As a result, PEM fuel cells can use unscrubbed air as oxidant,
and reformate as fuel.

2 Operate at low temperatures. This simplifies materials issues, provides for quick startup
and increases safety.

3 Use a soliddry electrolyte which eliminates liquid handling problems

4 Use a non-corrosive electrolyte. Pure water operation minimizes corrosion problems and
improves safety.

5 They have high voltage, current and power density

6 Operate at low pressure which increases safety

7 They have good tolerance to differential reactant gas pressures

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 17

 8 They are compact and rugged

9 They have relatively simple mechanical design

The disadvantages of PEMFCs are as follows:

1 They can tolerate only about 50 ppm carbon monoxide

2 PEMFC can tolerate only a few ppm of total sulfur compounds
3 Theyneed reactant gas humidification which is energy intensive and increases the
complexity of the system. The use of water to humidify the gases limits the operating
temperature of the fuel cell to less than water’s boiling point and therefore decreases
the potential for co-generation applications.
4 Uses an expensive platinum catalyst and membrane which is difficult handle.

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 18

 Super Capacitors (Ultracapacitors)
The supercapacitor, also known as ultracapacitor or double-layer capacitor, differs from a regular
capacitor in that it has very high capacitance. Ultracapacitors store energy in an electrostatic field
and batteries store energy as part of a chemical reaction. Supercapacitors have an absolute
maximum voltage rating of 2.7 V.

Capacitance of the capacitors is given by

𝜺𝑨
𝑪= 𝑭𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒔
𝒅
ε = Permittivity of the dielectric material

A = Area of the plates in m2

d = Distance between the plates

in terms of physical parameters

𝒒
𝑪= 𝑭𝒂𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒔
𝑽

q = Charge between plates

V = Voltage between plates

Instead of using a conventional dielectric, the ultracapacitors use activated carbon plates that are
of two layers of the same substrate, facilitating charge separation distances of an ion
diameter,which is about 1 nm as shown below.

The power density and energy density of ultracapacitors are of the order of 106 W/m3
and104Wh/m3, respectively. The ultracapacitors with high specificpower are highly suitable for

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 19

hybrid vehicles to provide the sudden transient power demand, such asduring acceleration and
hill climbing. The devices can also be used highly efficiently to capture therecovered energy during
regenerative braking.
Types of Supercapacitors : Supercapacitors are classified into three types as follows

1. Electrostatic double-layer capacitors

2. Pseudo-capacitors

3. Hybrid capacitors

1. Electrostatic Double Layer Capacitors: It consists of two electrodes, a separator, and an

electrolyte and use carbon electrodes or derivatives with much higher electrostatic double-
layer capacitance. The separation of charge in electrostatic double-layer capacitors is less than
in a conventional capacitor; it ranges from 0.3–0.8 nm.
2. Pseudo Capacitors : These are also called as Electrochemical Pseudo-Capacitors. It uses
metal oxide or conducting polymer electrodes and store electrical energy by electron charge
transfer between electrode and electrolyte using reduction-oxidation reaction commonly
known as a redox reaction.
3. Hybrid capacitors : The hybrid capacitors employs electrodes with different characteristics.
One electrode with the capacity to display electrostatic capacitance, and the other electrode
with electrochemical capacitance. Ex: Lithium-ion capacitor

Features of Supercapacitors : Some of the features are

a) Supercapacitors have high capacitances up to 2 kF.
b) These capacitors store large amounts of energy.
c) The charge time of a supercapacitor is 1–10 seconds.
d) These components can store electricity through either electrostatic charge
absorption/desorption.
Note : Absorption is a process of material transfer from a compound present in a gas phase to a
liquid phase by dissolution. Desorption refers to the release of an adsorbed substance from
a surface.
Applications of Supercapacitors : Supercapacitors are used in the following:
a) Electric cars
b) Wind turbines
c) Photographic flash
d) Flywheel in machines
e) MP3 players

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 20

 f) Regenerative braking in the automotive industry
g) Static memories (SRAM)
h) Industrial electrical motors
Note : Supercapacitors have a lower energy density than batteries and also have a higher self-
discharge rate than batteries, making them unsuitable for pure electric vehicles.

Modeling of Ultracapacitors : Ultracapacitors rely on polarization of the electrolyte at carbon

electrodes. The huge number of pores of the activated carbon increases the surface area allowing
many electrons to accumulate. The number of electrons stored in the electrodes is proportional to
the ultracapacitor capacitance. The behavioral models of ultracapacitor use a distributed RC-
network with multiple-time constants is shown below.
The frequency domain impedance of the model is given by

The first RC branch with the elements of Rfast, Cfast0 and Cfast1 models the charge

accumulation behavior in the macropores.

The second branch of Rmed, and Cmed models the behavior around the mesopores in the

time frame of seconds.

The third branch with the parameters of Rslow, and Cslow is the slowest branch

representing the activity around the micropores and has the slowest time constant.

The model also includes a parallel resistor Rleak to represent leakage and a series inductor

L for the terminals and electrodes.

The model helps to predict the behavior of ultracapacitor intervals of 30 min or less, which
is sufficient for motor drive systems in electric and hybrid vehicles.

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 21

Battery Parameters : Several parameters considered to analyze the characteristics of the
battery are as follows:
1) Battery Capacity
2) Open circuit voltage
3) Terminal Voltage
4) Practical Capacity
5) Discharge rate
6) State of Charge (SoC)
7) State of Discharge (SoD)
8) Depth of Discharge (DoD)
9) Battery Energy
10)Specific Energy
11)Battery Power
12)Specific Power
13)Ragone Plots
These parameters of the explained below:
1) Battery Capacity : The amount of charge released by the energized material at an
electrode associated with complete discharge of a battery is called the battery capacity. The
capacity is measured in Ah. 1 Ah = 3,600 C.
The theoretical capacity of a battery (QT) can be obtained Faraday’s law of
electrolysis. It states that the mass of the elemental material altered at an electrode is directly
proportional to the element’s equivalent weight for a given quantity of electrical charge.
Mathematically, Faraday’s law can be written as

where
mR = Mass of the limiting reactant material altered at an electrode in kg
Q = Total amount of electric charge passing through the material in coulombs
F = Faraday number or Faraday constant depend on amount of electric charge
carried by one mole of electrons
= NA e0 = 96485 C/mol
NA = Number of atoms in a mol = Avagadro Number = 6.022 x 1023 mol-1
e0 = Elemental charge = Amount of charge in one electron = 1.602 x 10-19 C
Mm = Molar mass of the material in g /mol

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 9

 n = Number of electrons per ion produced at an electrode called valency
number of ions for the substance

The number of Faradays required to produce one mole of substance at an electrode depends on
oxidization or reduction of substance.
Therefore QT = x n F Coulombs
where
x = (mR / Mm) = Number of moles limiting reactance in discharge of battery
The theoretical capacity of a battery (QT) in Ah is given by

The cells in a battery are connected in series and the capacity of the battery depends on
smallest cell capacity as shown below:

2) Open Circuit Voltage (OCV): The battery is represented by an internal voltage Ev and
a series resistance Ri as shown below :

The OCV depends on the state of charge of the battery, temperature and past discharge/charge
As the battery is gradually discharged, the internal voltage decreases, while the internal
resistance increases as shown above.
3) Terminal Voltage (Vt): The Vt is the voltage available at the terminals when a load
is connected to the battery and its characteristic in relationship with the SOD is shown below :
VFC = The terminal voltage when the battery is fully
charged. For example, with lead acid battery it means

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 10

that there is no more PbSO4 available to react with H2O to produce active material.
Vcut = The battery cut-off voltage, where discharge of the battery must be terminated.
4) Practical Capacity (QP) : It is the actual charge released by the energized material
at an electrode associated with complete discharge of the battery. QP < QT.

where
to = time at which battery is fully charged
tcut = time at which battery terminal voltage is at Vcut.
The circuit diagram to determine QP of battery is shown below. The smaller the magnitude of
the discharge current, higher is the capacity of the battery as shown below. To be accurate,
when the capacity of a battery is stated, the constant discharge current magnitude must also be
specified.

5) Discharge rate (C-rate): It is the current at which a battery is discharged under

constant current characteristics which is expressed as QP / h-rate.
where
QP = Rated battery capacity
h = Discharge time in hours.
If a battery has ‘QP’ capacity in Ah, and discharged in ‘Δt’ hours, then its
C-rate = QP / Δt.
Ex : If a lead acid battery has 100 Ah capacity,

Then its

or

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 11

The nominal capacity of a battery is given at a 1C-rate, and it decreases with increasing C-rate.

6) State of Charge (SoC) : It is the amount of capacity of battery that remains after
discharge from a top-of-charge condition. The current is the rate of change of charge.

The instantaneous theoretical state of charge SoCT(t) is the amount of equivalent charge
remaining at the positive electrode and ready to be released by the energized material.

Integrating from the initial time ‘to’ to the final time ‘t’, the expression for instantaneous state

of charge is obtained as
t
SoCT t   Q T   it  dt
t0

The SoC is expressed as a percentage of the capacity of the battery as follows

t
QT   it dt
S oCT t    100%
t0

QT
If the SoC = 0, at t = 0, then SoC of battery at time t in percentage is given by
t

 it dt
S oCT t    100%
t0

QT
7). State of Discharge (SoD) : It is a measure of the charge that has been drawn from a
battery during discharge. SoD is given as

8). Depth of Discharge (DoD) : It is the percentage of battery rated capacity to which a
battery is discharged. The withdrawal of at least 80% of battery (rated) capacity is referred to
as deep discharge. The depth of discharge is given by

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 12

 QT  SoCT t 
DoD t    100%
QT
9). Battery Energy (E) : Energy of a battery is measured in terms of the capacity and the
discharge voltage as follows :
Theoretical stored energy

where Vbat = Nominal no load terminal voltage

QT = Theoretical capacity of battery in C units.
The practical available battery energy is

where
to = Time at which battery is fully charged
tcut = Time in hours at which battery terminal voltage is at Vcut,
v = Battery terminal voltage
i = Battery discharge current.
10). Specific Energy (SE): It is a discharge of battery from fully charged condition to
complete discharge.

The specific energy of lead acid battery is 35–50 Wh/kg at C/3 rate.
11). Battery Power : The instantaneous
battery terminal power is

From the maximum power transfer theorem, the battery can deliver maximum power to a DC
load when the load impedance matches the battery internal impedance.

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 13

 Maximum power output (Pmax) is needed from the battery when the electric motor is
heavily loaded.
Acceleration on a slope is such a condition, when the motor draws a lot of current to
deliver maximum power required for traction. The performance of batteries to meet
acceleration and hill climbing requirements can be evaluated with the help of rated power
specifications, which are based on the ability of the battery to dissipate heat.
The rated continuous power is the maximum power that the battery can deliver over
prolonged discharge intervals without damage to the battery.
The rated instantaneous power is the maximum power that the battery can deliver
over a very short discharge interval without damage to the battery.
12). Specific Power (SP) : The specific power of a battery is expressed as

where
P = Power delivered by battery in watts
MB = Mass of battery in kg.
Ex : Lead acid battery’s maximum specific power is around 280 W/kg at DoD = 80%.
The term power density is used to refer to the power of the battery per unit volume with
units of W/L.
13). Ragone Plots : The plot of SP versus SE on a log–log scale is known as the Ragone plot.
The charging capacity decreases with the increase of current. The Ragone plots of several
batteries along with alternative energy sources and an IC engine is shown below:

18EE646 : Electrical Vehicle Technologies, Module – 2 Class Notes Page 14