Python

(UNIT - I)
1. Python is a widely used general-purpose, high level programming language. It was initially
designed by Guido van Rossum in 1991 and developed by Python Software Foundation. It was
mainly developed for emphasis on code readability, and its syntax allows programmers to
express concepts in fewer lines of code. Python is a programming language that lets you work
quickly and integrate systems more efficiently.
2. There are two major Python versions- Python 2 and Python 3.
a. On 16 October 2000, Python 2.0 was released with many new features.
b. On 3rd December 2008, Python 3.0 was released with more testing and includes new
features.
3. It supports Object Oriented programming approach to develop applications. It is simple and easy
to learn and provides lots of high-level data structures.
4. We don't need to use data types to declare variable because it is dynamically typed, so we can
write a=10 to assign an integer value in an integer variable.
5. Python has many third-party libraries that can be used to make its functionality easier. These
libraries cover many domains, for example, web development, scientific computing, data
analysis, and more.
6. Python is a case-sensitive language, which means that uppercase and lowercase letters are
treated differently. For example, 'name' and 'Name' are two different variables in Python.
7. In Python, comments can be added using the '#' symbol. Any text written after the '#' symbol is
considered a comment and is ignored by the interpreter.

Why to use Python?

1. Python is object-oriented Structure supports such concepts as polymorphism, operation

overloading and multiple inheritance.
2. Indentation Indentation is one of the greatest feature in python
3. It’s free (open source) Downloading python and installing python is free and easy
4 It’s Powerful
5 Built-in types and tools
6 Library utilities
7 Third party utilities (e.g. Numeric, NumPy, sciPy)
8 It’s Portable.
9 Python runs virtually every major platform used today.
10 It’s easy to use and learn.
11 Structure and syntax easy to grasp.
12 Interpreted Language Python is processed at runtime by python Interpreter.
13 Straight forward syntax the formation of python syntax is simple and straight forward which also
makes it popular.

Python Applications

1. Data Science: Data Science is a vast field, and Python is an important language for this field
because of its simplicity, ease of use, and availability of powerful data analysis and visualization
libraries like NumPy, Pandas, and Matplotlib.
2. Desktop Applications: PyQt and Tkinter are useful libraries that can be used in GUI - Graphical
User Interface-based Desktop Applications. There are better languages for this field, but it can
be used with other languages for making Applications.
 3. Console-based Applications: Python is also commonly used to create command-line or console-
based applications because of its ease of use and support for advanced features such as
input/output redirection and piping.
4. Mobile Applications: While Python is not commonly used for creating mobile applications, it can
still be combined with frameworks like Kivy or BeeWare to create cross-platform mobile
applications.
5. Software Development: Python is considered one of the best software-making languages.
Python is easily compatible with both from Small Scale to Large Scale software.
6. Artificial Intelligence: AI is an emerging Technology, and Python is a perfect language for
artificial intelligence and machine learning because of the availability of powerful libraries such
as TensorFlow, Keras, and PyTorch.
7. Web Applications: Python is commonly used in web development on the backend with
frameworks like Django and Flask and on the front end with tools like JavaScript and HTML.
8. Enterprise Applications: Python can be used to develop large-scale enterprise applications with
features such as distributed computing, networking, and parallel processing.
9. 3D CAD Applications: Python can be used for 3D computer-aided design (CAD) applications
through libraries such as Blender.
10. Machine Learning: Python is widely used for machine learning due to its simplicity, ease of use,
and availability of powerful machine learning libraries.
11. Computer Vision or Image Processing Applications: Python can be used for computer vision and
image processing applications through powerful libraries such as OpenCV and Scikit-image.
12. Speech Recognition: Python can be used for speech recognition applications through libraries
such as SpeechRecognition and PyAudio.
13. Scientific computing: Libraries like NumPy, SciPy, and Pandas provide advanced numerical
computing capabilities for tasks like data analysis, machine learning, and more.
14. Education: Python's easy-to-learn syntax and availability of many resources make it an ideal
language for teaching programming to beginners.
15. Testing: Python is used for writing automated tests, providing frameworks like unit tests and
pytest that help write test cases and generate reports.
16. Gaming: Python has libraries like Pygame, which provide a platform for developing games using
Python.
17. IoT: Python is used in IoT for developing scripts and applications for devices like Raspberry Pi,
Arduino, and others.
18. Networking: Python is used in networking for developing scripts and applications for network
automation, monitoring, and management.
19. DevOps: Python is widely used in DevOps for automation and scripting of infrastructure
management, configuration management, and deployment processes.
20. Finance: Python has libraries like Pandas, Scikit-learn, and Statsmodels for financial modeling
and analysis.
21. Audio and Music: Python has libraries like Pyaudio, which is used for audio processing,
synthesis, and analysis, and Music21, which is used for music analysis and generation.
22. Writing scripts: Python is used for writing utility scripts to automate tasks like file operations,
web scraping, and data processing.

Before we start Python programming, you have to download IDLE (Integrated Development
Environment) from http://python.org/downloads/

Steps to be followed and remembered:

1. Select Version of Python to Install.

2. Download Python Executable Installer.
 3. Run Executable Installer.
4. Verify Python Was Installed On Windows.
5. Verify Pip Was Installed.
6. Add Python Path to Environment Variables (Optional)

Python Code Execution:

Python’s traditional runtime execution model: Source code you type is translated to byte code, which is
then run by the Python Virtual Machine (PVM). Your code is automatically compiled, but then it is
interpreted.

Syntax:

Print (“Hello world”);

Python Indentation

1. Indentation refers to the spaces at the beginning of a code line.

2. Where in other programming languages the indentation in code is for readability only, the
indentation in Python is very important.
 3. Python uses indentation to indicate a block of code.

Example:

if 5 > 2:
print("Five is greater than two!")

Data types:
The data stored in memory can be of many types. For example, a student roll number is stored as a
numeric value and his or her address is stored as alphanumeric characters. Python has various standard
data types that are used to define the operations possible on them and the storage method for each of
them.

1. Int:

Int, or integer, is a whole number, positive or negative, without decimals, of unlimited length.

Example:

>>> print(24656354687654+2)
24656354687656

>>> print(20)
20

>>> a=10
>>> print(a)
10

To verify the type of any object in Python, use the type () function:

>>> a=11
>>> print (type (a))

2. Float:

Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing one or more
decimals.

>>> y=2.8
>>> y
2.8

3. Boolean:

Objects of Boolean type may have one of two values, True or False:

>>> type(True)

>>> type(False)
 4. String:

Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters represented in the quotation
marks. Python allows for either pairs of single or double quotes.
'hello' is the same as "hello".
Strings can be output to screen using the print function. For example: print ("hello").

Example:

>>> print(“College")

Variables:
Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. This means that when you create a
variable you reserve some space in memory. Based on the data type of a variable, the interpreter
allocates memory and decides what can be stored in the reserved memory. Therefore, by assigning
different data types to variables, you can store integers, decimals or characters in these variables.

Rules for Python variables:

1. A variable name must start with a letter or the underscore character

2. A variable name cannot start with a number
3. A variable name can only contain alpha-numeric characters and underscores (A-z, 0-9, and _ )
4. Variable names are case-sensitive (age, Age and AGE are three different variables)

Assigning Values to Variables:

The equal sign (=) is used to assign values to variables. The operand to the left of the = operator is the
name of the variable and the operand to the right of the = operator is the value stored in the variable.

For example:

A = 10
Print (a)

Multiple Assignment:

Python allows you to assign a single value to several variables simultaneously.

For example:

a=b=c=1
a = b = c = 1, 2, “Name”

Note:

To combine both text and a variable, Python uses the “+” character:

Example:

x = "awesome"
print ("Python is " + x)
 Python Objects
Python is an object-oriented programming language. Everything is in Python treated as an object,
including variable, function, list, tuple, dictionary, set, etc. Every object belongs to its class.

For example - An integer variable belongs to integer class. An object is a real-life entity. An object is the
collection of various data and functions that operate on those data. An object contains the following
properties.

1. State - The attributes of an object represents its state. It also reflects the properties of an
object.
2. Behavior - The method of an object represents its behavior.
3. Identity - Each object must be uniquely identified and allow interacting with the other objects.

Classes are the blueprint of the object. Classes are used to bundling the data and functionality together.
Each newly created class must have its object.

The class contains the user-defined data structure that holds the own data members such as variables,
constructs, and member functions, which can be accessed by creating an object of the class.

Standard Types:
The 6 standard data types in Python are Numeric, String, List, Tuple, Set, and Dictionary.

1. Python Numbers - Number data types store numeric values. Number objects are created when
you assign a value to them.

For example −

var1 = 1
var2 = 10

2. Python Strings - Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters represented in
the quotation marks. Python allows for either pairs of single or double quotes. Subsets of strings
can be taken using the slice operator ([ ] and [:] ) with indexes starting at 0 in the beginning of
the string and working their way from -1 at the end.

3. Python Lists - Lists are the most versatile of Python's compound data types. A list contains
items separated by commas and enclosed within square brackets ([]). To some extent, lists are
similar to arrays in C. One difference between them is that all the items belonging to a list can
be of different data type.

4. Python Tuples - A tuple is another sequence data type that is similar to the list. A tuple consists
of a number of values separated by commas. Unlike lists, however, tuples are enclosed within
parentheses.

5. Python Dictionary - Python's dictionaries are kind of hash table type. They work like associative
arrays or hashes found in Perl and consist of key-value pairs. A dictionary key can be almost any
Python type, but are usually numbers or strings. Values, on the other hand, can be any arbitrary
Python object.
 Built-in Data Types in Python
There are different types of data types in Python. Some built-in Python data types are −

1. Numeric data types − int, float, complex

2. String data types − str
3. Sequence types − list, tuple, range
4. Mapping data type − dict
5. Boolean type − bool
6. Set data types − set

1. Python Numeric Data types - In Python, the numeric data type is used to hold numeric values.
Integers, floating-point, and complex numbers fall under the Python numbers category. They are
defined as int, float, and complex classes in Python.

int − holds signed integers of non-limited length.

float − holds floa ng decimal points, and it's accurate up to 15 decimal places.
complex − holds complex numbers.

2. Python String Data type - A string is a collection of Unicode symbols. The name for String in
Python is str. Single or double quotations are used to represent strings. The use of triple quotes
""" or "' to indicate multiple strings is acceptable. Between the quotations, every character is a
part of the string.

3. Python Sequence Data types

List − The list is a flexible data type only available in Python. It resembles the array in C/C++ in
certain ways. However, the list in Python is noteworthy because it can store many sorts of data
simultaneously. A list is an ordered collection of information expressed using commas and square
brackets ([]). (,).

Tuple − The list and a tuple are comparable in many respects. Tuples hold a collection of elements of
various data kinds, much like lists do. The tuple's components are separated by commas (,) and
parenthesized (). Due to the inability to change the elements' size and value, tuples are read-only
data structures.

Range − The range() method in Python returns a list of integers that fall inside a specified range. It is
most frequently used to iterate over a series of integers using Python loops.

4. Dict - A dictionary in Python is a collection of data items that are stored in an unordered fashion,
much like a map. Dictionaries are made up of key-value pairs, as contrast to other data types,
which can only contain a single value. A comma "separates each key," whereas each key-value
pair in the representation of a dictionary data type is separated by a colon.

5. Bool - True and False are the two pre-built values the boolean type offers. Any non-zero integer
or the letter "T" can be used to denote truth, while the number "0" or the letter "F" can denote
falsehood.

6. Set - The data type's unordered collection is called a Python Set. It has components that are
unique, iterable, and changeable (may change after creation). Use the built-in method set() to
build the set, or give a list of elements enclosed in curly braces and separated by commas. It
may include several kinds of values.
 Operators

The operator is a symbol that performs a specific operation between two operands. Operators perform
several tasks. In other words, Operators are special symbols that perform operations on variables and
values.

1. Arithmetic operators
2. Assignment Operators
3. Comparison Operators
4. Logical Operators
5. Special Operators

1. Python Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, etc.
Operator Operation Example
+ Addition 5+2=7
- Subtraction 4-2=2
* Multiplication 2*3=6
/ Division 4/2=2
% Modulus 5%2=1
** Power 4 ** 2 = 16

Example –

a=7
b=2
print ('Sum: ', a + b)

print ('Subtraction: ', a - b)

print ('Multiplication: ', a * b)

print ('Division: ', a / b)

print ('Modulus: ', a % b)

print ('Power: ', a ** b)

2. Python Assignment Operators

Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.

Operator Name Example

= Assignment Operator a=7
+= Addition Assignment a += 1 | a = a + 1
-= Subtraction Assignment a -= 3 | a = a - 3
*= Multiplication Assignment a *= 4 | a = a * 4
/= Division Assignment a /= 3 | a = a / 3
 %= Remainder Assignment a %= 10 | a = a % 10

Example –

a = 10
b=5
a += b
print(a)

3. Comparison Operator –

Comparison operators compare two values/variables and return a boolean result: True or False
Operator Meaning Example
== Is Equal To 3 == 5 gives us False
!= Not Equal To 3 != 5 gives us True
> Greater Than 3 > 5 gives us False
< Less Than 3 < 5 gives us True
>= Greater Than or Equal To 3 >= 5 give us False
<= Less Than or Equal To 3 <= 5 gives us True

Example –

a=5
b=2

print('a == b =', a == b)
print('a != b =', a != b)
print('a > b =', a > b)

print('a < b =', a < b)

print('a >= b =', a >= b)
print('a <= b =', a <= b)

4. Logical Operator –

Logical operators are used to check whether an expression is True or False. They are used in
decision-making.
Operator Example Meaning
and a and b Logical AND:
True only if both the operands are True
or a or b Logical OR:
True if at least one of the operands is True
not not a Logical NOT:
True if the operand is False and vice-versa.

Example –

print(True and True)

print(True and False)
print(True or False)
 print(not True)

5. Special Operator – It includes identity operator and the membership operator.

Identity operators:

In Python, is and is not are used to check if two values are located on the same part of the
memory.
Operator Meaning Example
is True if the operands are x is True
identical (refer to the same
object)
is not True if the operands are not x is not True
identical (do not refer to the
same object)

Example –

x1 = 5
y1 = 5

x2 = 'Hello'
y2 = 'Hello'

x3 = [1,2,3]
y3 = [1,2,3]

print(x1 is not y1) # prints False

print(x2 is y2) # prints True

print(x3 is y3) # prints False

Membership Operators

In Python, in and not in are the membership operators. They are used to test whether a value or
variable is found in a sequence (string, list, tuple, set and dictionary).

Operator Meaning Example

in True if value/variable is found in the 5 in x
sequence
not in True if value/variable is not found in 5 not in x
the sequence

Example -

x = 'Hello world'
y = {1:'a', 2:'b'}
 # check if 'H' is present in x string
print('H' in x) # prints True

# check if '1' key is present in y

print(1 in y) # prints True

Strings

A String is a data structure in Python that represents a sequence of characters. It is an

immutable data type, meaning that once you have created a string, you cannot change it.
Strings are used widely in many different applications, such as storing and manipulating text
data, representing names, addresses, and other types of data that can be represented as text.

Example:

print("Hello")
print('Hello')

Python does not have a character data type, a single character is simply a string with a length of
1. Assigning a string to a variable is done with the variable name followed by an equal sign(=)
and the string.
a = "Hello"
print(a)

You can also assign a multiline string to a variable by using three quotes

For Example 1:

a = """Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua."""
print(a)

For Example 2:

a = '''Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet,

consectetur adipiscing elit,
sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt
ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.'''
print(a)

1. Like many other popular programming languages, strings in Python are arrays of bytes
representing unicode characters.
2. However, Python does not have a character data type, a single character is simply a string with a
length of 1.
3. Square brackets can be used to access elements of the string.
For Example:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(a[1])

Since strings are arrays, we can loop through the characters in a string, with a for loop

For Example:

for x in "banana":
print(x)

String Methods or Built-in Functions

Len() – Returns the length of a string

Example:

a = "Hello, World!"
print(len(a))

In() - To check if a certain phrase or character is present in a string

Example –

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("free" in txt)

Not In - To check if a certain phrase or character is NOT present in a string.

Example –

txt = "The best things in life are free!"

print("expensive" not in txt)

Capitalize() - Upper case the first letter in this sentence

Example: -

txt = "hello, and welcome to my world."

x = txt.capitalize()
print (x)

Casefold() -

Example -
txt = "Hello, And Welcome To My World!"
x = txt.casefold()
print(x)

Count()

Example -

txt = "I love apples, apple are my favorite fruit"

x = txt.count("apple")
print(x)

Endswith()

Example -

txt = "Hello, welcome to my world."

x = txt.endswith("my world.")
print(x)

Find()

Example-

txt = "Hello, welcome to my world."

x = txt.find("welcome")
print(x)

Index()

Example-

txt = "Hello, welcome to my world."

x = txt.index("welcome")
print(x)

Islower()

Example -

txt = "hello world!"

x = txt.islower()
print(x)

Isupper()

Example()-
txt = "THIS IS NOW!"
x = txt.isupper()
print(x)

Lstrip()-

Example -

txt = " banana "

x = txt.lstrip()

rstrip()-

Example-

txt = " banana "

x = txt.rstrip()

Replace()-

Example-

txt = "I like bananas"

x = txt.replace("bananas", "apples")
print(x)

Split()-

Example-

txt = "welcome to the jungle"

x = txt.split()
print(x)

Numbers
Number data types store numeric values. They are immutable data types, which means that
changing the value of a number data type results in a newly allocated object.

There are three numeric types in Python:

 int
 float
 complex

Example -
x=1
y = 2.8
z = 1j

To check their datatype, we use the type() function

Python Int type

Python int is the whole number, including negative numbers but not fractions. In Python, there
is no limit to how long an integer value can be.

Example -

num = -8

print(type(num))

Python Float type

This is a real number with a floating-point representation. It is specified by a decimal point.

Float, or "floating point number" is a number, positive or negative, containing one or more
decimals.

Example -

x = 1.10
y = 1.0
z = -35.59

print(type(x))
print(type(y))
print(type(z))

Example - 2

x = 35e3
y = 12E4
print(type(x))
print(type(y))

Python Complex type

A complex number is a number that consists of real and imaginary parts. For example, 2 + 3j is a
complex number where 2 is the real component, and 3 multiplied by j is an imaginary part.

Example 1 -

num = 6 + 9j
print(num)

Type Conversion in Python

a=2
print(float(a))

b = 5.6
print(int(b))

c = '3'
print(type(int(c)))

d = '5.6'
print(type(float(c)))

e=5
print(complex(e))

f = 6.5
print(complex(f))

Random Numbers in Python

import random

print(random.random())
print(random.randrange(1, 10))

Selecting a random element from a string or list

import random

s = 'Hello How Are You?'

print(random.choice(s))
 Math Module

Math.ceil - Round a number upward to its nearest integer

Example -

import math

print(math.ceil(1.4))
print(math.ceil(5.3))
print(math.ceil(-5.3))
print(math.ceil(22.6))
print(math.ceil(10.0))

Math.factorial() - Factorial of a Number

Example -

import math

print(math.factorial(9))
print(math.factorial(6))
print(math.factorial(12))

Math.floor() - Round numbers down to the nearest integer

Example -

import math

print(math.floor(0.6))

print(math.floor(1.4))

print(math.floor(5.3))

print(math.floor(-5.3))

print(math.floor(22.6))

print(math.floor(10.0))

Sqrt()-

Example -

import math

print (math.sqrt(10))

print (math.sqrt (12))

print (math.sqrt (68))

print (math.sqrt (100))

Pow() - Power

Example -

import math

print(math.pow(2, 3))

Special features of strings

Python string is the collection of the characters surrounded by single quotes, double quotes, or
triple quotes. The computer does not understand the characters; internally, it stores
manipulated character as the combination of the 0's and 1's.

Each character is encoded in the ASCII or Unicode character. So we can say that Python strings
are also called the collection of Unicode characters.

In Python, strings can be created by enclosing the character or the sequence of characters in the
quotes. Python allows us to use single quotes, double quotes, or triple quotes to create the
string.

Example -

str = "Hi Python !"

Example 2 -

str3 = '''''Triple quotes are generally used for

represent the multiline or docstring'''

print(str3)

Strings indexing and splitting

Like other languages, the indexing of the Python strings starts from 0.

Example -

str = "HELLO"

print(str[0])

print(str[1])

print(str[2])

print(str[3])
print(str[4])

# It returns the IndexError because 6th index doesn't exist

print(str[6])

The slice operator [] is used to access the individual characters of the string. However, we can
use the : (colon) operator in Python to access the substring from the given string.

if str = 'HELLO' is given, then str[1:3] will always include str[1] = 'E', str[2] = 'L' and nothing else.

Example -

str = "Hello World"

# Start 0th index to end

print(str[0:])

# Starts 1th index to 4th index

print(str[1:5])

# Starts 2nd index to 3rd index

print(str[2:4])

# Starts 0th to 2nd index

print(str[:3])

#Starts 4th to 6th index

print(str[4:7])

Example 2 -

str = ”HELLO WORLD”

print(str[-1])

print(str[-3])

print(str[-2:])

print(str[-4:-1])

print(str[-7:-2])

# Reversing the given string

print(str[::-1])

print(str[-12])
 Deleting the String

As we know that strings are immutable. We cannot delete or remove the characters from the
string. But we can delete the entire string using the del keyword.

str = "HELLO WORLD"

del str[1]

The format() method

The format() method is the most flexible and useful method in formatting strings. The curly
braces {} are used as the placeholder in the string and replaced by the format() method
argument.

Example -

# Using Curly braces

print("{} and {} both are the best friend".format("Devansh","Abhishek"))

#Positional Argument

print("{1} and {0} best players ".format("Virat","Rohit"))

#Keyword Argument

print("{a},{b},{c}".format(a = "James", b = "Peter", c = "Ricky"))

Memory Management

1. Understanding Memory allocation is important to any software developer as writing efficient

code means writing a memory-efficient code. Memory allocation can be defined as allocating a
block of space in the computer memory to a program.
2. In Python memory allocation and deallocation method is automatic as the Python developers
created a garbage collector for Python so that the user does not have to do manual garbage
collection.
3. Garbage collection is a process in which the interpreter frees up the memory when not in use
to make it available for other objects. The virtual machine has a garbage collector that
automatically deletes that object from the heap memory
Example:

There are two or more variables that have the same value, so, what Python virtual machine does
is, rather than creating another object of the same value in the private heap, it actually makes
the second variable point to that originally existing value in the private heap.

x = 10
 When x = 10 is executed an integer object 10 is created in memory and its reference is assigned
to variable x, this is because everything is object in Python.

x = 10

y=x

y = x will create another reference variable y which will refer to the same object because Python
optimizes memory utilization by allocation the same object reference to a new variable if the
object already exists with the same value.

After changing X value

There are two parts of memory:

1. stack memory

2. heap memory

The methods/method calls and the references are stored in stack memory and all the values
objects are stored in a private heap.

Work of Stack Memory

The allocation happens on contiguous blocks of memory. It is only needed inside the particular
function or method call. The function is added in program's call stack whenever we call
it.Variable assignment inside the function is temporarily stored in the function call stack; the
function returns the value, and the call stack moves to the text task. The compiler handles all
these processes, so we don't need to worry about it.

Heap Memory Allocation

Heap data structure is used for dynamic memory. One of the best advantages of heap memory
is to it freed up the memory space if the object is no longer in use or the node is deleted.The
memory is allocated during the execution of instructions written by programmers. Note that the
name heap has nothing to do with the heap data structure. It is called heap because it is a pile of
memory space available to programmers to allocated and de-allocate. The variables are needed
outside of method or function calls or are shared within multiple functions globally are stored in
Heap memory.
 Python (UNIT - II)
Python List
1. A list is a collection of different kinds of values or items. Since Python lists are mutable, we can
change their elements after forming. The comma (,) and the square brackets [enclose the List's
items] serve as separators.
2. A list, a type of sequence data, is used to store the collection of data. A single list may contain
DataTypes like Integers, Strings, as well as Objects. Lists are mutable, and hence, they can be
altered even after their creation.
3. List items are ordered, changeable, and allow duplicate values.
4. List items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Example -

list1 = [1, 2, "Python", "Program", 15.9]

list2 = ["Amy", "Ryan", "Henry", "Emma"]

print(list1)

print(list2)

Order list checking

a = [ 1, 2, "Ram", 3.50, "Rahul", 5, 6 ]

b = [ 1, 2, 5, "Ram", 3.50, "Rahul", 6 ]

a == b

The list() Constructor

It is also possible to use the list() constructor when creating a new list.

Example

thislist = list(("apple", "banana", "cherry"))

print(thislist)

Access Items

List items are indexed and you can access them by referring to the index number

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(thislist[1])

Negative Indexing

Negative indexing means start from the end

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
print(thislist[-1])

Range of Indexes

We can also specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.

Example:

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[2:5])

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the list

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[2:])

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the list

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango"]

print(thislist[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a list use the in keyword

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

if "apple" in thislist:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits list")

Change Item Value

To change the value of a specific item, refer to the index number

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist[1] = "blackcurrant"
print(thislist)

Change a Range of Item Values

To change the value of items within a specific range, define a list with the new values, and refer to the
range of index numbers where you want to insert the new values

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "mango"]

thislist[1:3] = ["blackcurrant", "watermelon"]
print(thislist)
We can loop through the list items by using a for loop.

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in thislist:
print(x)

Looping Using List Comprehension

List Comprehension offers the shortest syntax for looping through lists

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

[print(x) for x in thislist]

List Methods

Len() - List length

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

print(len(thislist))

Insert()- To insert a list item at a specified index

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.insert(2, "watermelon")
print(thislist)

Append() - To add an item to the end of the list, use the append() method

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.append("orange")
print(thislist)

Extend() - o append elements from another list to the current list, use the extend() method

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

tropical = ["mango", "pineapple", "papaya"]
thislist.extend(tropical)
print(thislist)

Remove() - removes the specified item.

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.remove("banana")
print(thislist)

Pop() - removes the specified index and last item

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.pop(1)
print(thislist)
thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
thislist.pop()
print(thislist)

Del() - removes the specified index and delete the list completely.

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

del thislist[0]
print(thislist)

Clear()- The list still remains, but it has no content.

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

thislist.clear()
print(thislist)

Sort()-It will sort the list alphanumerically, ascending, by default.

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort()
print(thislist)

To sort descending, use the keyword argument reverse = True

thislist = ["orange", "mango", "kiwi", "pineapple", "banana"]

thislist.sort(reverse = True)
print(thislist)

Reverse()- reverses the current sorting order of the elements

thislist = ["banana", "Orange", "Kiwi", "cherry"]

thislist.reverse()
print(thislist)

Copy a list

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = thislist.copy()
print(mylist)

thislist = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

mylist = list(thislist)
print(mylist)

Append Lists

list1 = ["a", "b", "c"]

list2 = [1, 2, 3]

list3 = list1 + list2

print(list3)
 Python Tuples
Python Tuple is a collection of objects separated by commas. In some ways, a tuple is similar to a Python
list in terms of indexing, nested objects, and repetition but the main difference between both is Python
tuple is immutable, unlike the Python list which is mutable.

Creating Python Tuples

There are various ways by which you can create a tuple in Python. They are as follows:

 Using round brackets

 With one item
 Tuple Constructor

Create Tuples using Round Brackets ()

var = ("How", "Are", "You?")

print(var)

Create a Tuple with One Item

mytuple = ("Hello",)

print(type(mytuple))

Tuple Constructor in Python

tuple_constructor = tuple(("dsa", "developement", "deep learning"))

print(tuple_constructor)

Tuples in Python are similar to Python lists but not entirely. Tuples are immutable and ordered and allow
duplicate values. Some Characteristics of Tuples in Python.

 We can find items in a tuple since finding any item does not make changes in the tuple.
 One cannot add items to a tuple once it is created.
 Tuples cannot be appended or extended.
 We cannot remove items from a tuple once it is created.
 Tuple items are indexed, the first item has index [0], the second item has index [1] etc.

Access Tuple Items

We can access tuple items by referring to the index number, inside square brackets

Example:

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[1])
Negative Indexing

Negative indexing means start from the end.

-1 refers to the last item, -2 refers to the second last item etc.

Example –

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(thistuple[-1])

Range of Indexes

We can specify a range of indexes by specifying where to start and where to end the range.

When specifying a range, the return value will be a new tuple with the specified items.

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[2:5])

By leaving out the start value, the range will start at the first item

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[:4])

By leaving out the end value, the range will go on to the end of the tuple

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[2:])

Range of Negative Indexes

Specify negative indexes if you want to start the search from the end of the tuple.

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry", "orange", "kiwi", "melon", "mango")

print(thistuple[-4:-1])

Check if Item Exists

To determine if a specified item is present in a tuple use the in keyword

Example –

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

if "apple" in thistuple:
print("Yes, 'apple' is in the fruits tuple")
Update Tuples

Tuples are unchangeable, meaning that you cannot change, add, or remove items once the tuple is
created. But we can convert the tuple into a list, change the list, and convert the list back into a tuple.

Example –

x = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(x)
y[1] = "kiwi"
x = tuple(y)

print(x)

Add Items

Convert into a list: We can convert it into a list, add our item(s), and convert it back into a tuple.

Example –

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = list(thistuple)
y.append("orange")
thistuple = tuple(y)

Add tuple to a tuple. We are allowed to add tuples to tuples, so if we want to add one item, (or many),
create a new tuple with the item(s), and add it to the existing tuple.

Example –

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

y = ("orange",)
thistuple += y

print(thistuple)

We cannot remove items in a tuple. But as same as above we convert the tuple into a list, remove
"apple", and convert it back into a tuple.

Or we can delete the tuple completely.

Example –

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

del thistuple
print(thistuple)

Loop Through a Tuple

We can loop through the tuple items by using a for loop.

Example –

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

for x in thistuple:
print(x)

Join Two Tuples

To join two or more tuples we can use the + operator.

Example –

tuple1 = ("a", "b" , "c")

tuple2 = (1, 2, 3)

tuple3 = tuple1 + tuple2

print(tuple3)

Multiply Tuples

If we want to multiply the content of a tuple a given number of times, we can use the * operator.

Example –

fruits = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

mytuple = fruits * 2

print(mytuple)

Tuple Methods

Len()- Length of the tuple

thistuple = ("apple", "banana", "cherry")

print(len(thistuple))

Count() - return the number of times the value 5 appears in the tuple

thistuple = (1, 3, 7, 8, 7, 5, 4, 6, 8, 5)
x = thistuple.count(5)

print(x)

Index() – Search for the first occurrence of the value 8, and return its position.

thistuple = (1, 3, 7, 8, 7, 5, 4, 6, 8, 5)
x = thistuple.index(8)
print(x)
 Set
 A Set in Python programming is an unordered collection data type that is iterable, mutable and
has no duplicate elements.
 Set are represented by { } (values enclosed in curly braces)
 Sets are used to store multiple items in a single variable.
 A set is a collection which is unordered, unchangeable, and unindexed.

Example

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(thisset)

The set() Constructor

It is also possible to use the set() constructor to make a set.

Example

thisset = set(("apple", "banana", "cherry")) # note the double round-brackets

print(thisset)

Access Items

We cannot access items in a set by referring to an index or a key.

But we can loop through the set items using a for loop, or ask if a specified value is present in a set, by
using the in keyword.

Example –

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

Add Items

Once a set is created, We cannot change its items, but we can add new items.

Example -

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.add("orange")
print(thisset)

Add Sets

To add items from another set into the current set, we use the update() method.
Example –

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

tropical = {"pineapple", "mango", "papaya"}

thisset.update(tropical)

print(thisset)

Add Any Iterable

The object in the update() method does not have to be a set, it can be any iterable object (tuples, lists,
dictionaries etc.).

Example - Add elements of a list to at set.

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

mylist = ["kiwi", "orange"]

thisset.update(mylist)

print(thisset)

Remove Item

To remove an item in a set, use the remove(), or the discard() method.

Example –

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.remove("banana")

print(thisset)

Example –

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.discard("banana")

print(thisset)

We can also use the pop() method to remove an item, but this method will remove a random item, so
we cannot be sure what item that gets removed.

Example –

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

x = thisset.pop()
print(x)
print(thisset)
Clear() - The clear() method empties the set

Example -

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

thisset.clear()

print(thisset)

Del()-The del keyword will delete the set completely

Example -

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

del thisset

print(thisset)

We can loop through the set items by using a for loop

Example –

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

for x in thisset:
print(x)

Join Two Sets

We can use the union() method that returns a new set containing all items from both sets, or
the update() method that inserts all the items from one set into another.

Example –

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set3 = set1.union(set2)
print(set3)

set1 = {"a", "b", "c"}

set2 = {1, 2, 3}

set1.update(set2)
print(set1)

Get the Length of a Set, we use the len() function.

thisset = {"apple", "banana", "cherry"}

print(len(thisset))
 Dictionary
 A dictionary in Python is a data structure that stores the value in key:value pairs. This makes it
different from lists, tuples, and arrays as in a dictionary each key has an associated value.
 Values in a dictionary can be of any data type and can be duplicated, whereas keys can’t be
repeated and must be immutable.
 Note – Dictionary keys are case sensitive, the same name but different cases of Key will be
treated distinctly.
 Dictionary items are ordered, changeable, and do not allow duplicates.

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
print(thisdict["brand"])

The dict() Constructor

It is also possible to use the dict() constructor to make a dictionary.

Example –

thisdict = dict(name = "John", age = 36, country = "Norway")

print(thisdict)

Accessing Items

We can access the items of a dictionary by referring to its key name, inside square brackets.

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
x = thisdict["model"]

Get Keys

The keys() method will return a list of all the keys in the dictionary.

Example –

x = thisdict.keys()
Example –

car = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}

x = car.keys()

print(x) #before the change

car["color"] = "white"

print(x) #after the change

Get Values

The values() method will return a list of all the values in the dictionary.

Example –

x = thisdict.values()

Get Items

The items() method will return each item in a dictionary, as tuples in a list.

Example –

x = thisdict.items()

Check if Key Exists

To determine if a specified key is present in a dictionary use the in keyword:

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
if "model" in thisdict:
print("Yes, 'model' is one of the keys in the thisdict dictionary")

Update Dictionary

The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from the given argument.

The argument must be a dictionary, or an iterable object with key:value pairs.

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"year": 2020})

Adding Items

Adding an item to the dictionary is done by using a new index key and assigning a value to it.

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict["color"] = "red"
print(thisdict)

Update Dictionary

The update() method will update the dictionary with the items from a given argument. If the item does
not exist, the item will be added.

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.update({"color": "red"})

Removing Items

Pop() - The pop() method removes the item with the specified key name. Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.pop("model")
print(thisdict)
popitem() - The popitem() method removes the last inserted item.

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.popitem()
print(thisdict)

del() – The del keyword removes the item with the specified key name.

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
del thisdict["model"]
print(thisdict)

clear() - The clear() method empties the dictionary

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
thisdict.clear()
print(thisdict)

Loop Through a Dictionary

We can loop through a dictionary by using a for loop.

Example – Print all key names in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(x)

Example - Print all values in the dictionary, one by one:

for x in thisdict:
print(thisdict[x])
Example - We can also use the values() method to return values of a dictionary:

for x in thisdict.values():
print(x)

Example - We can use the keys() method to return the keys of a dictionary:

for x in thisdict.keys():
print(x)

Example -

Loop through both keys and values, by using the items() method:

for x, y in thisdict.items():
print(x, y)

Copy a Dictionary

We cannot copy a dictionary simply by typing dict2 = dict1, because: dict2 will only be
a reference to dict1, and changes made in dict1 will automatically also be made in dict2.

There are ways to make a copy, one way is to use the built-in Dictionary method copy().

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = thisdict.copy()
print(mydict)

Another way to make a copy is to use the built-in function dict().

Example –

thisdict = {
"brand": "Ford",
"model": "Mustang",
"year": 1964
}
mydict = dict(thisdict)
print(mydict)

Nested Dictionaries

A dictionary can contain dictionaries, this is called nested dictionaries.

Example –

myfamily = {
"child1" : {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
},
"child2" : {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
},
"child3" : {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}
}

Or, if you want to add three dictionaries into a new dictionary.

child1 = {
"name" : "Emil",
"year" : 2004
}
child2 = {
"name" : "Tobias",
"year" : 2007
}
child3 = {
"name" : "Linus",
"year" : 2011
}

myfamily = {
"child1" : child1,
"child2" : child2,
"child3" : child3
}

Access Items in Nested Dictionaries

To access items from a nested dictionary, we use the name of the dictionaries, starting with the outer
dictionary.

print(myfamily["child2"]["name"])
 Conditional Statements

If-Else statements in Python are part of conditional statements, which decide the control of code.

There are situations in real life when we need to make some decisions and based on these decisions, we
decide what we should do next. Similar situations arise in programming also where we need to make
some decisions and based on these decisions we will execute the next block of code.

Conditional statements in Python languages decide the direction (Control Flow) of the flow of program
execution.

Types of Control Flow in Python

 The if statement
 The if-else statement
 The nested-if statement
 The if-elif-else ladder

If statement:

Example -

a = 33
b = 200
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")

Elif - The elif keyword is Python's way of saying "if the previous conditions were not true, then try this
condition".

Example

a = 33
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")

Else - The else keyword catches anything which isn't caught by the preceding conditions.

Example

a = 200
b = 33
if b > a:
print("b is greater than a")
elif a == b:
print("a and b are equal")
else:
print("a is greater than b")

Short Hand If - If we have only one statement to execute, we can put it on the same line as the if
statement.

Example

if a > b: print("a is greater than b")

Short Hand If ... Else - If we have only one statement to execute, one for if, and one for else, we can put
it all on the same line.

Example

a=2
b = 330
print("A") if a > b else print("B")

Nested If - We can have if statements inside if statements, this is called nested if statements.

Example

x = 41

if x > 10:
print("Above ten,")
if x > 20:
print("and also above 20!")
else:
print("but not above 20.")

Python Loops

Python has two primitive loop commands:

 while loops
 for loops

The while Loop

With the while loop we can execute a set of statements as long as a condition is true.

Example

i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
i += 1
The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop even if the while condition is true

Example –

i=1
while i < 6:
print(i)
if i == 3:
break
i += 1

The continue Statement

With the continue statement we can stop the current iteration, and continue with the next

Example –

i=0
while i < 6:
i += 1
if i == 3:
continue
print(i)

pass Statement

if statements cannot be empty, but if we for some reason have an if statement with no content, put in
the pass statement to avoid getting an error.

Example -

a = 33
b = 200

if b > a:
pass

Python For Loops

A for loop is used for iterating over a sequence (that is either a list, a tuple, a dictionary, a set, or a
string).

This is less like the for keyword in other programming languages, and works more like an iterator
method as found in other object-orientated programming languages.

With the for loop we can execute a set of statements, once for each item in a list, tuple, set etc.

Example –
fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]
for x in fruits:
print(x)

The break Statement

With the break statement we can stop the loop before it has looped through all the items.

Example –

fruits = ["apple", "banana", "cherry"]

for x in fruits:
print(x)
if x == "banana":
break

Python
(Unit – III)

Python Functions

1. A function is a block of code which only runs when it is called.

2. You can pass data, known as parameters, into a function.
3. A function can return data as a result.
4. It is benefit for code reusability.

Example –

def MyFunction():
print("Hello World")

To call a function, use the function name followed by parenthesis:

Example –

def my_function():
print("Hello from a function")

my_function()

Arguments

Information can be passed into functions as arguments.

Arguments are specified after the function name, inside the parentheses. We can add as many
arguments as we want, just separate them with a comma.

Example –

def my_function(firstName):
print(firstName + "Zuckerberg")

my_function("Mark")
my_function("Pushpa")
my_function("Dharamveer")

Number of Arguments

By default, a function must be called with the correct number of arguments. Meaning that if our
function expects 2 arguments, we have to call the function with 2 arguments, not more, and not less.

Example 1 –

def our_function(fname, lname):

print(fname + " " + lname)

our_function("Pushpa", "Sharma")

Example – 2

def my_function(child3, child2, child1):

print("The youngest child is " + child3)

my_function(child1 = "Pushpa", child3 = "Jawaan", child2 = "Pathaan")

Default Parameter Value

If we call the function without argument, it uses the default value:

Example –

def my_function(country = "Norway"):

print("I am from " + country)

my_function("Sweden")
my_function("India")
my_function()
my_function("Brazil")

Arbitrary Arguments, *args

If we do not know how many arguments that will be passed into our function, add a * before the
parameter name in the function definition.

This way the function will receive a tuple of arguments, and can access the items accordingly.

Example –

def my_function(*actors):

print("The best actor award goes to is: " + actors[2])

my_function("Pushpa", "Tiger", "Pathaan",”Jawan”)

Arbitrary Keyword Arguments, **kwargs

If we do not know how many keyword arguments that will be passed into our function, then we add two
asterisk: ** before the parameter name in the function definition.

Example –

def my_function(**kid):
print("His last name is " + kid["lname"])

my_function(fname = "Ravikant", lname = "Sharma")

Class and Object

1. A class is a user-defined blueprint or prototype from which objects are created. Classes provide
a means of bundling data and functionality together.
2. Creating a new class creates a new type of object, allowing new instances of that type to be
made. Each class instance can have attributes attached to it for maintaining its state.
3. Class instances can also have methods (defined by their class) for modifying their state.
4. The class creates a user-defined data structure, which holds its own data members and member
functions, which can be accessed and used by creating an instance of that class. A class is like a
blueprint for an object.

An object consists of:

1. State: It is represented by the attributes of an object. It also reflects the properties of an object.
2. Behavior: It is represented by the methods of an object. It also reflects the response of an object
to other objects.
3. Identity: It gives a unique name to an object and enables one object to interact with other
objects.

Syntax: Class

Class ClassName:

#statement
Syntax: Object

obj = ClassName()

print(obj.atrr)

Some points on Python class:

1. Classes are created by keyword class.

2. Attributes are the variables that belong to a class.
3. Attributes are always public and can be accessed using the dot (.) operator. Eg.: My
class.Myattribute

Example – 1

class dog:

attr1 = "mammal"

attr2 = "dog"

obj = dog()

print(obj.attr1 + " " + obj.attr2)

Example 2 –

class MyClass:

x=5

p1 = MyClass()

print(p1.x)

Constructors

Constructor in python is a special method that is called when an object is created. The purpose of a
python constructor is to assign values to the data members within the class when an object is initialized.

In Python every class has a constructor. The purpose of the constructor is to construct an object and
assign a value to the object’s members.

In Python, a constructor is a special method that is called when an object is created. The purpose of a
python constructor is to assign values to the data members within the class when an object is initialized.
The name of the constructor method is always __init__.

Rules of Python Constructor

 1. The constructor method must be named __init__.
2. The first argument of the constructor method must be self. This is a reference to the object
itself, and it is used to access the object’s attributes and methods.
3. The constructor method must be defined inside the class definition. It cannot be defined outside
the class.
4. The constructor method is called automatically when an object is created. You don’t need to call
it explicitly.
5. You can define both default and parameterized constructors in a class. If you define both, the
parameterized constructor will be used when you pass arguments to the object constructor, and
the default constructor will be used when you don’t pass any arguments.

Example –

class Actors:

def __init__(self, name, age):

self.name = name

self.age = age

person = Actors("Pathaan", 80)

print(person.name)

print(person.age)

The __init__ method is called when the Person object is created, and it sets the name and age attributes
of the object. It is called automatically when the object is created, and it is used to initialize the object’s
attributes. It accepts the self-keyword as a first argument which allows accessing the attributes or
method of the class.

Types of Constructors:

1. Default Constructor: A default constructor is a constructor that takes no arguments.

2. Parameterized Constructor: A parameterized constructor is a constructor that takes one or
more arguments.

Default Constructor - A default constructor is a constructor that takes no arguments

Example –

class Person:

def __init__(self):

self.name = "Devdas"
 self.age = 30

person = Person()

print(person.name)

print(person.age)

Parameterized Constructor: A parameterized constructor is a constructor that takes one or more

arguments.

Example –

class Person:

def __init__(self, name, age):

self.name = name

self.age = age

person = Person("Randeep", 25)

print(person.name)

print(person.age)

Inheritance

Inheritance is an important aspect of the object-oriented paradigm. Inheritance provides code

reusability to the program because we can use an existing class to create a new class instead of creating
it from scratch.

In inheritance, the child class acquires the properties and can access all the data members and functions
defined in the parent class. A child class can also provide its specific implementation to the functions of
the parent class.

In python, we have base class refers to parent class and derived class refers to child class.

Benefits of Inheritance:

1. It represents real-world relationships well.

2. It provides the reusability of a code. We don’t have to write the same code again and again.
Also, it allows us to add more features to a class without modifying it.
3. It is transitive in nature, which means that if class B inherits from another class A, then all the
subclasses of B would automatically inherit from class A.
4. Inheritance offers a simple, understandable model structure.
5. Less development and maintenance expenses result from an inheritance.
Example –

class Animal:
def speak(self):
print("Animal Speaking")
class Dog(Animal):
def bark(self):
print("dog barking")
d = Dog()
d.bark()
d.speak()

Python Multi-level Inheritance

Multi-Level inheritance is possible in python like other object-oriented languages. Multi-level

inheritance is archived when a derived class inherits another derived class. There is no limit on the
number of levels up to which, the multi-level inheritance is archived in python.

Example –

class Animal:
def speak(self):
print("Animal Speaking")

class Dog(Animal):
def bark(self):
print("dog barking")

class DogChild(Dog):
def eat(self):
print("Eating bread...")

d = DogChild()
d.bark()
d.speak()
d.eat()

Python Multiple inheritance

Python provides us the flexibility to inherit multiple base classes in the child class.

Example –

class Calculation1:
def Summation(self,a,b):
return a+b;

class Calculation2:
def Multiplication(self,a,b):
 return a*b;

class Derived(Calculation1,Calculation2):
def Divide(self,a,b):
return a/b;

d = Derived()
print(d.Summation(10,20))
print(d.Multiplication(10,20))
print(d.Divide(10,20))

Hierarchy Inheritance

Example -

class Calculation1:
def Summation(self,a,b):
return a+b;

class Calculation2(Calculation1):
def Multiplication(self,a,b):
return a*b;

class Derived(Calculation1):
def Divide(self,a,b):
return a/b;

d = Derived()
c = Calculation2()

print(d.Summation(10,20))
print(d.Divide(10,20))
print(c.Multiplication(10,20))