Module 1

Module – 1
• Introduction: Energy source, India’s production and reserves of commercial energy sources,
need for nonconventional energy sources, energy alternatives- solar, thermal, photovoltaic.
Water power, wind biomass, ocean temperature difference, tidal and waves, geothermal, tar
sands and oil shale, nuclear (Brief descriptions); advantages and disadvantages, comparison
(Qualitative and Quantitative), Indian and global energy scenario.
• Solar Radiation: Extra-Terrestrial radiation, spectral distribution of extra terrestrial radiation,

solar constant, solar radiation at the earth’s surface, beam, diffuse and global radiation, solar
radiation data. Pyrometer, shading ring Pyrheliometer, sunshine recorder, schematic
diagrams and principle of working, actinometer and bolometer.
The word energy is derived from the Greek word eergon, which means “in-work” or work
content. The work output depends on the energy input.
Energy is fundamental to daily life. Whether it is providing lights for our classrooms,
refrigeration for our food and medicine, pumps to irrigate our crops, or electricity to run our
commercial and industrial enterprises, energy provides the means for economic growth and
social and political development”. Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic
development of any country. In the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical
importance in view of the ever –increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet
them.
While fossil fuels will be the main fuel for thermal power, there is a fear that they will get
exhausted eventually in the next century. Therefore other systems based on nonconventional
& renewable sources are being tried by many countries.
Energy source
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
– Primary and Secondary energy
– Commercial and Non commercial energy
– Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
– Conventional and Non-conventional energy
Primary energy sources are those that are either found or stored in nature. They are those
sources which do not require any transformation before their use. They are directly used e.g.,
coal, lignite, petroleum, gas, etc.
1
Renewable Energy Power Plants DKB, VCET, Puttur
Secondary sources which involve transformation process before final use are referred to
secondary sources e.g., transforming inputs of coal energy into electricity.
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commercial
energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined
petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural, transport
and commercial development in the modern world.
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as
non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle
dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used
especially in rural households.
Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Since
these can be renewed over a relatively short period of time, energy sources that are replenished
more rapidly are termed as renewable. Examples of renewable are sources include wind power,
solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and hydroelectric power. The most important
feature of renewable energy is that it can be harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants.
Non-renewable energy (exhaustible) are available in limited amount and develop over a longer
period of time. As a result of unlimited use, they are likely to be exhausted one day. These
include coal, mineral, natural gas and nuclear power.
Conventional energy resources which are being traditionally used for many decades and were
in common use around oil crisis of 1973 are called conventional energy resources, e.g., fossil
fuel, nuclear and hydro resources.
Non-conventional energy resources which are considered for large – scale use after oil crisis
of 1973, are called non-conventional energy sources, e.g., solar, wind, biomass, etc…
2
India’s production and reserves of commercial energy sources
Coal:
Coal is the end product of a natural process of decomposition of vegetable matter buried in
swamps & out of contact with oxygen for thousands of years. The word ‘coal’ denotes a wide
variety of solid fuels. The varieties in approximate order of their formation are peat, lignite,
bituminous & anthracite coal.
The coal production (both coking and non-coking) in India in 1951 was about 35 MT per year,
which has increased to about 220 MT/year in 1990, and 414 MT/year in 2006. Thus the
production has increased by about 12 times in a span of 50 years.
India has good reserves of coal. It is estimated that the coking and non-cooking coal reserves
together is about 84000 MT. It Is about 8.6% of the world reserve, and India is the 4th largest
in the world.
The rate of production of coal in India over the last 50 years is shown in fig
Annual production of coal in India [production rate (Mt/Year] v/s Year

Oil:
The production of crude oil in India in 1950 was about 0.25 MT, which increased to about 33
MT in 2003. The low production in fifties was due to non-discovery of proper crude resources.
However, it increased in late sixties due to crude oil discoveries in Assam and Gujarat. In
seventies it was further increased (about 13 MT per year) with better resources in the western
coast of India (in regions like Bombay High).
The present day reserves of crude oil are estimated to be around 760 MT. It is believed that, an
estimated reserves of about 1000 MT of crude is available both on the eastern and western
coasts of India. The below fig. represents presents data on the annual consumption of petroleum
products in India (curve 3) from 1951 onwards.
3
Annual production, import & consumption of oil in India
[Production Rate (Mt/Year) v/s Year]
Curve 1. Domestic production of crude,
Curve 2. Import of crude,
Curve 3. Consumption of products
Natural gas:
It is estimated that the useful natural gas reserves in India are about 920 billion cubic metres
(2003 estimates), which are derived along with crude oil. India is producing about 32 billion
cubic metres of natural gas per year. At this production rates, the Indian gas reserves may last
about 30 years.
Presents data on the annual useful production of natural gas in India from 1969 onwards. In
1969, the production was only 0.516 billion m3. It did not change much till 1973. However,
subsequently the production increased rapidly. It was 8.913 billion m3 in 1989, 13.5% from
1989 to 1997 & 3.1% from 1997 to 2005.
Annual production of natural gas in India [Production rate (109 m3/Year) v/s Year]
Nuclear power:
Data on the electricity production from nuclear power is plotted in below fig., with GWh and
time plotted on Y and X axis respectively. It is seen that the electricity produced has been
generally increasing over the years, as more units are getting commissioned. The higher
amount, viz 19,242 GWh was produced in 2002. The fall in certain years is because of some
units being down for maintenance.
The present installed capacity of nuclear power plants is about 3300 MW, and consists of two
Boiling Water Reactors and twelve Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors. These reactors
4
contribute to about 3% of total power generated in the country. Eight more reactors, with a
total capacity of 3420 MW, are under construction at different parts of the country. The main
nuclear fuel is uranium and the estimated reserves of this fuel are about 60000 tonnes in India.
Electricity produced from nuclear power in India
Need for nonconventional energy sources

The concern for environmental due to the ever increasing use of fossil fuels & rapid depletion
of these resources has led to the development of alternative sources of energy, which are
renewable & environmental friendly. Following points may be mentioned in this connection.
1) The demand of energy is increasing by leaps & bounds due to rapid
industrialization & population growth, the conventional sources of energy will
not be sufficient to meet the growing demand.
2) Conventional sources (fossil fuels, nuclear) also cause pollution; there by their
use degrade the environment.
3) Conventional sources (except hydro) are non-renewable & bound to finish one
day.
4) Large hydro-resources affect wild-life, cause deforestation & pose various
social problems, due to construction of big dams.
5) Fossil fuels are also used as raw materials in the chemical industry (for
chemicals, medicines, etc… & need to be conserved for future generations.
Due to these reasons it has become important to explore & develop non-conventional energy
resources to reduce too much dependence on conventional resources. However, the present
trend development of NCES indicates that these will serve as supplements rather than substitute
for conventional sources for some more time.
Salient features of non-conventional energy resources

Merits:
1) NCES are available in nature, free of cost.
2) They cause no or very little pollution. Thus, by and large, they are environmental
friendly.
3) They are inexhaustible.
4) They have low gestation period.
5
Demerits:
1) Though available freely in nature, the cost of harnessing energy from NCES is high, as
in general, these are available in dilute forms of energy.
2) Uncertainty of availability: the energy flow depends on various natural phenomena
beyond human control.
3) Difficulty in transporting these forms of energy.
Energy alternatives
Alternative Energy refers to energy sources other than fossil fuels. This includes all
renewable sources and nuclear. Nuclear is not classified as a renewable energy source. A
renewable energy source is produced from sources that do not deplete or can be
replenished within a human's lifetime.
Energy alternatives: Solar - thermal, photovoltaic, Water power, wind, biomass, ocean
temperature difference, tidal and waves, geothermal, tar sands and oil shale, and nuclear
Solar:
Of all the energy alternatives, the solar energy is most attractive. It is available in plenty,
it is non-polluting and available free of cost. The solar power received by the earth is
about 1.8xl011 MW, which is thousands of times greater than the present day
consumption of the world. Thus, solar energy can meet, if utilized properly; all the
present and future energy requirements on the earth. There are two methods to harness
solar energy:
• Thermal Energy
• Photovoltaic Energy
Advantages:
• It is non-polluting
• It is available in plenty and free of cost.
• It is non-depletable, reliable source.
• It is quite steady during day times compared to wind and tidal source of energy.
• It can be stored during day times and used during night times.
• Maintenance cost of solar conversion systems is almost nil.
• It is the most suitable energy source for space technology.
Disadvantages:
• It is very dilute and not constant.
• It requires large collection systems, which are generally expensive.
• Its installation requires large space area.
• Though its storage is possible, it is very difficult and expensive process for storing.
6
• Higher power development is not possible, and is suitable only for small power
requirement.
Water Power
Like wind
energy, the flowing water and water stored in huge dams is also a very important source of
energy which is known as hydroelectric energy. Hydroelectric is produced by the natural flow
or fall of water. By channeling water that is flowing downhill, the force of the water can be
used to turn turbines and via a generator, produce electricity.
Hydroelectricity comes from the damming of rivers and utilizing the potential energy stored in
water. When the water stored behind a dam is released its potential/kinetic energy is transferred
onto turbine blades and used to generate electricity. Though the initial cost of setting up of
hydroelectric power system is high, it has relatively low maintenance costs and provides
relatively inexpensive power.
In practice, a water reservoir is constructed by means of dams in a river for storage of water.
High dams are built to obtain a substantial amount of hydrostatic pressure. When stored water
under high pressure is released from the upper level into water driven turbine placed at a lower
level, electricity is generated
Advantages:
– Electricity can be produced at a constant rate.
– If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut, stopping electricity
generation. The water can be saved for use another time when electricity
demand is high.
– Dams are designed to last many decades.
– The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and leisure /
pleasure activities.
– The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
– The build up of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until needed,
when the water is released to produce electricity.
– They do not pollute the atmosphere.
Disadvantages:
– Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built to a very high
standard.
7
– The high cost of dam construction means that they must operate for many
decades to become profitable.
– The flooding of large areas of land means that the natural environment is
destroyed.
– People living in villages and towns that are in the valley to be flooded, must
move out.
– Dams built blocking the progress of a river in one country usually means that
the water supply from the same river in the following country is out of their
control.
Tidal Energy
Tidal energy is a form of power produced by the natural rise and fall of tides caused by the
gravitational interaction/pull between Earth, the sun, and the moon. Tides fluctuate due to the
gravitational pull of the sun and moon. Although not yet widely used, tidal energy has the
potential for future electricity generation. Tides are more predictable than the wind and the sun.
There are three main ways to harness the energy created by tides and currents in a body of
water:
– tidal turbines,
– tidal barrages, and
– tidal fences.
Tidal Turbine
Tidal turbines are very similar to wind turbines, except they are below the water’s surface
instead of above or on land. The water’s current pushes the blades of the turbine, which is
connected to a generator that creates electricity. Tidal turbines are able to produce much more
electricity than wind power plants, mainly because water is much denser than air. However,
water’s high density also means that tidal turbines need to be much stronger than wind turbines,
making them more expensive to manufacture. Tidal turbines are large, but they create relatively
8
little disruption to the ecosystem around them, as the blades tend to move slowly so it isn’t that
much of a concern. They also emit low level noise, which cannot impact marine mammals.
Tidal barrage
Tidal barrages are low-walled dams, usually installed at tidal inlets or estuaries. Similar to
traditional hydroelectric dams, sluice gates are used to create a reservoir on one side of the
barrage. The barrage is secured to the sea floor. Tidal turbines are located towards the bottom
of the barrage, inside a tunnel, which allow water to flow through. Turbines located along the
bottom of the barrage are turned with the incoming and outgoing tides.
During an incoming high tide, water flows over the turbines as the water rises. Then, the water
flows back through the turbines as it becomes low tide. The turbines are connected to a
generator which produces the electricity. Tidal barrages are the most efficient way to harness
tidal energy, but they’re also the most costly.
Tidal fence
A tidal fence is like a hybrid between tidal barrages and tidal turbines. The vertical tidal fence
turnstiles are installed together in a ‘fence-like’ structure, hence the name ‘tidal fence’. Instead
of spinning like a propeller, tidal fences spin like a turnstile. To create electricity, the energy
from tidal currents pushes the turnstile blades, which are connected to a generator. Tidal fences
have vertical blades that are pushed by moving water. These vertical turbines are installed
together like a fence, but they don’t require the large, concrete structure that tidal barrages
do. They are submerged entirely underwater, and have little impact on the surrounding
ecosystem.
Advantages
– it’s a renewable source of energy
– it is environmentally friendly
– tides are predictable
9
– it generates energy at low speeds
– durable equipment
Disadvantages
– they have an impact on marine life
– maintenance and corrosion are an
issue
– they have to be within close proximity
to land
– it is a costly technology
Wave Energy
Waves are most commonly caused by wind. Wave energy is a form of renewable energy that
can be harnessed from the motion of the waves. Depending on the lunar cycles, tides, winds,
and weather, waves can vary in size and strength. As waves roll through the ocean, they create
kinetic energy, or movement. This movement can be used to power turbines, which, in turn,
create energy that can be converted into electricity and power. There is a wide range of wave
energy technologies. Each technology uses different solutions to absorb energy from waves.
There are five main types of technology used including; Absorbers, Attenuators, Oscillation
water columns, overtopping and Inverted- Pendulum device.
Absorbers
An absorber is a floating structure which absorbs energy
from wave motion through its movements at the water
surface. The system consists of a float, spar, and heave plate
as shown in the figure. The float moves up and down the spar
in response to the motion of the waves. The heave plate
maintains the spar in a relatively stationary position. The
relative motion of the float with respect to the spar drives a
mechanical system contained in the spar that converts the
linear motion of the float into a rotary motion. The rotary
motion drives electrical generators that produce electricity
for onboard use or for export to nearby marine applications
using a submarine electrical cable.
Attenuators
Attenuators capture energy by being placed
perpendicular to the crest of the wave. The traveling
crests and troughs of the waves causes the attenuator
to continuously flex at the joints where segments are
connected. This motion drives hydraulic rams which
pump high-pressure oil through hydraulic motors to
generate electricity.
Oscillation water columns

An Oscillating Water Column (OWC) is a partially submerged enclosed structure. The upper
part of the structure, above the water, is filled with air, and incoming waves are funneled into
the bottom part of the structure. The water column in the device then rises and falls with the
wave which causes the air in the top structure to pressurize and depressurize. This in turn
10
pushes and pulls air through an air turbine at the top of the structure, converting the energy to
electricity.
Overtopping
Overtopping device captures sea water from waves that
overtop a barrier and fill a reservoir situated above sea level.
The water is then released back to sea through low-head
turbines. This technology is very similar to a conventional
hydropower dam.
Inverted- Pendulum device

An oscillating wave surge converter,
or more simply an inverted-
pendulum device, uses the surge
motion of waves to move a hinged
paddle back and forth. The motion of
the paddle drives hydraulic pumps
which drive electrical generators.
Advantages
– Renewable
– Environment Friendly
– Abundant
– Variety of Ways To Harness
– Reliable
– Vast Amounts of Energy can be Produced
– Small Footprint
– Minimum Visual Impact
– Low Operational Cost and Fewer Maintenance Issues
Disadvantages
– Suitable to Certain Locations
– Effect on Marine Ecosystem
– Source of Disturbance for Private and Commercial Vessels
– Weak Performance in Rough Weather
– Noise and Visual Pollution
– High Costs
– Hard To Scale
– Slow Technology Improvements
– Difficult To Transmit
– Few Implemented
Nuclear Power
The atoms of a few elements such as radium and uranium act as natural source of energy. A
large amount of energy is stored in the nucleus of every atom. The energy stored in the nuclei
of atoms can be released by breaking a heavy nucleus such as uranium into two lighter nuclei.
The splitting of the nucleus of an atom into fragments that are roughly equal in mass with the
release of energy is called nuclear fission. When a free neutron strikes a Uranium (235) nucleus
11
at a correct speed, it gets absorbed. A Uranium (235) nucleus on absorbing a neutron becomes
highly unstable and splits into nuclei of smaller atoms releasing huge amount of energy in the
process. This energy is used for boiling water till it becomes steam. Steam so generated is used
to drive a turbine which helps in generating electrical energy.
Advantages
– High power output

– Reliability
– No Greenhouse Gases
– Small land footprint
Disadvantages
– Uranium is non-renewable
– High upfront costs
– Nuclear waste
– Malfunctions can be catastrophic
Geothermal energy
Geothermal energy is obtained from
the internal heat of the earth. In fact it
is one of the oldest types of natural
sources of heat. The word geothermal
comes from the Greek words geo
(earth) and therme (heat). Geothermal
energy is a renewable energy source
because heat is continuously produced
inside the earth. People use geothermal
heat for bathing, to heat buildings, and
to generate electricity. Geothermal
power plants use steam to produce electricity. The steam comes from reservoirs of hot water
found a few miles or more below the earth's surface. The steam rotates a turbine that activates
a generator, which produces electricity.
12
Advantages
– Reliable Source of Renewable Energy
– Does not release hazardous greenhouse gases.
– It is a renewable, carbon-free, and sustainable source of energy.
– Little to No Geothermal System Maintenance
Disadvantages
– Environmental concerns about Greenhouse Emissions
– The regions that consist of geothermal plants often experience minor seismic
activity.
– The method of drilling geothermal plants deep under the Earth proves to be
dangerous for the people.
– High initial cost.
Tar Sands
Tar sands (also known as oil sands) are a mixture of mostly sand, clay, water, and a thick,
molasses-like substance called bitumen, which is an oil that is black and viscous. The sands
can be mined, and then processed, to remove the bitumen. Once processed, then bitumen can
be then refined into oil. It is a complex process of extraction and separation. Common
extraction methods include surface mining where the extraction site is excavated and “in-situ”
mining, where steam is used to liquefy bitumen deep underground. The largest deposits of tar
sands are found in Alberta, Canada. On a lifetime basis, a gallon of gasoline made from tar
sands produces about 15% more carbon dioxide emissions than one made from conventional
oil.
Advantages
– It provides a localized economic benefit.
– Environmental changes can be repaired.
– Recipients of tar sands experience economic benefits.
– Land preservation efforts can occur simultaneously with tar sands operations.
Disadvantages
– Clear-cutting is often required to access deposits.
– Extracting bitumen from tar sands is carbon-intensive.
– The waste products from tar sands are highly toxic.
– It takes a lot of water to run a tar sands operation.
13
Oil Shale
Oil shale is a sedimentary rock that is also a fossil fuel. Oil shale's, are formed millions of years
ago from the remains of plants and animals trapped under intense heat and pressure. Oil shale is
a type of sedimentary rock that is rich in kerogen. Kerogen is a part of rock that breaks down
and releases hydrocarbons when heated. Petroleum and natural gas are probably the most
familiar hydrocarbons. Shale oil is similar to petroleum, and can be refined into many different
substances, including diesel fuel, gasoline, and liquid petroleum gas (LPG).Companies can also
refine shale oil to produce other commercial products, such as ammonia and sulfur. The spent
rock can be used in cement.
Advantages
– It reduces the energy dependence
– It can be used instead of coal which is more contaminant than shale gas.
– It balances the oil prices.
– It breaks the monopoly of oil exporting countries.
– It has the power of providing employment.
– It has the power of improve the economic indicators
Disadvantages
– Shale oil gives off sulfur, carbon dioxide, ethylene, carbon monoxide and
hydrogen sulfide.
– Its production is highly costly.
– The property and cost of extracting oil shale is very expensive.
– A lot of energy is used to extract the oil sands as well.
Biomass energy
The solar energy causes the photosynthesis process in the plants and lead to the formation of
biomass. Biomass can be effectively converted in to useful form of energy by various means.
The potential application of bio-mass as an Alternative source of energy in India is very great.
We have plenty of agricultural and forests for production of biomass. Biomass is produced in
nature through photosynthesis achieved by solar energy conversion.
Energy from the biomass is generated in three different forms namely :) Direct burning, ii)
Liquefaction, iii) Gas generation.
• Direct burning: When biomass is directly burnt, energy is generated.
• Liquefaction: Biomass is liquefied either by thermo-chemical method or biochemical
method to generate alcohols like methyl and ethyl alcohol. These are mixed with petrol
and used in IC Engines as fuels.
• Bio gas: Biomass is converted to biogas by the process of digestion or fermentation in
the presence of micro-organisms. This biogas mainly contains methane which is a good
combustible gas.
Advantages:
 Biomass is always and widely available as a renewable source of energy.
 It is carbon neutral.
 It reduces the overreliance of fossil fuels.
 Is less expensive than fossil fuels
 Biomass production adds a revenue source for manufacturers.
 Less garbage in landfills.
14
Disadvantages:
 Biomass energy is not as efficient as fossil fuels
 It is not entirely clean
 Can lead to deforestation.
 Biomass plants require a lot of space.
Ocean Thermal-Energy:
Ocean thermal energy conversion process can be used to manifest energy from the ocean
arising out of temperature difference at different levels in the water.
A large amount of solar energy is collected and stored in tropical oceans. The surface of the
water acts as the collector for solar heat, while the upper layer of the sea constitutes infinite
heat storage reservoir. Thus the heat contained in the oceans could be converted into electricity
by utilizing the fact that the temperature difference between the warm surface water of the
tropical oceans and the colder water in the depths. Utilization of this energy with its associated
temp difference and its conversion into work forms the basis of ocean thermal energy (OTEC)
systems. The surface water which is at higher temperature could be used to heat some low
boiling organic fluid, the vapours of which would run
a heat engine.
Advantages
 Renewable Energy
 Clean energy
 Reliable
 Environmental friendly
 Low Maintenance
 Independent of Weather
Disadvantages
 High Commencing Cost
 Interfere with navigation
 Large size turbines with expensive liquid
 Harmful on Marine life
15
The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being generated by various kinds of fusion
reactions. Its diameter is 1.39 X 106 km, while that of the earth is 1.27 X 104 km. The mean
distance between the two is 1.496 X 108 km. Although the sun is large, it subtends an angle of
only 32 minutes at the earth’s surface. Thus, the beam radiation received from the sun on the
earth is almost parallel. The brightness of the sun varies from its centre to its edge. However,
for engineering calculations, it is customary to assume that the brightness all over the solar disc
is uniform.
Extra-Terrestrial radiation
Radiation is energy that comes from a source and travels through space at the speed of light.
This energy has an electric field and a magnetic field associated with it, and has wave-like
properties hence the name “electromagnetic waves”. Solar radiation, is the electromagnetic
radiation emitted by the Sun, and is generally expressed in units of W/m2 .Solar radiation can
be captured and turned into useful forms of energy, such as heat and electricity, using a variety
of technologies.
Solar radiation incident outside the earth's atmosphere is called

extraterrestrial radiation. Two sources of variation
in extraterrestrial radiation must be considered. The first is the
variation in the radiation emitted by the sun. It has been suggested
that there are small variations (less than ±1.5%) with different
periodicities and variations related to sunspot activities. Variations
in the earth–sun distance, however, lead to variations in
extraterrestrial radiation in the range of ±3.3%.The dependence of
extraterrestrial radiation on the time of year is shown in Fig.
Spectral Distribution of Extra Terrestrial Radiation

The sun emits radiation across a broad spectrum of wavelengths, as shown. The portion of the
solar spectrum that is visible to the human eye is generally in the range of 380–780 nm. This
portion of the spectrum is called the visible spectrum.
16
Radiation in wavelengths shorter
than 380 nm is known
as ultraviolet radiation, and
radiation occurring in
wavelengths longer than around
780 nm is
called infrared radiation. The
majority of solar radiation
reaching the top of the earth's
atmosphere falls in the spectral
range of 300–3000 nm.
Solar Constant
The amount of solar energy per unit time, at
the mean distance of the earth from the sun,
received on a unit area of a surface normal to
the sun (perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the radiation) outside the
atmosphere is called the solar constant, Gsc.
This quantity is difficult to measure from the
surface of the earth because of the effect of
the atmosphere.
When the sun is closest to the earth, on

January 3, the solar heat on the outer edge of the earth’s atmosphere is about 1400 W/m2; and
when the sun is farthest away, on July 4, it is about 1330 W/m2.
Throughout the year, the extraterrestrial radiation measured on the plane normal to the radiation
on the Nth day of the year, Gon, varies between these limits, can be calculated by
Where,
Gon = extraterrestrial radiation measured on the plane normal to the radiation on
the Nth day of the year (W/m2).
Gsc = solar constant (W/m2).
The latest value of Gsc is 1366.1 W/m2
Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface

Solar radiations while passing through the earth’s atmosphere are subjected to the mechanism
of atmospheric absorption and scattering. Selective absorption of various wavelengths occurs
by different molecules:
– Nitrogen, molecular oxygen and other atmospheric gases absorb the X-rays and
extreme UV radiations.
– Ozone absorbs a significant amount of UV radiation.
17
– Water vapor and carbon dioxide absorb almost completely the infrared
radiation.
– Dust particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiant energy
irrespective of wavelength.
Scattering by dust particles, and air molecules. A part of scattered radiation is lost to space
while remaining is directed downwards to the earth’s surface from different directions as
diffuse radiation. In cloudy atmosphere:
– A major part of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back into the
atmosphere by the clouds.
– Another part is absorbed clouds
– Remaining is transmitted downwards to the earth surface as diffuse radiation.
Therefore the energy is reflected back to space by:

– Reflection from the clouds
– Scattering by atmospheric gases and dust particles
– Reflection from the earth’s atmosphere
Therefore on the earth surface there are two components of solar radiation:
– Beam radiation
– Diffuse radiation
Beam radiation: Solar radiation propagating in a straight line and received at the earth’s
surface without change of direction.
Total radiation at any location on the surface of the earth is the sum of beam radiation and
diffuse radiation is known as global radiation.
Solar Radiation Data

Usually, the solar radiation is measured on horizontal surfaces. A typical daily solar radiation,
both total and diffuse, measured both on a clear day and cloudy day are shown in Figure. It can
be seen that on a clear day the radiation varies smoothly from low at sun rise to high at the
noon (1200 hours) and gradually drops down to low by sun set (shown as continuous lines).
On a cloudy day the radiation pattern is disturbed due to varying sun light through the clouds
(shown as dotted lines).
18
For the design of solar energy applications, the primary requirement is the average values for a
location. The average data is taken
over a month, and values for the
hourly variation of total and diffuse
radiation, the amount of radiation
received per day and the sunshine
hours per day are recorded. These
data have been published by many
investigators for various locations in
India and these are very useful in the
design of solar devices.
Pyranometer
A pyranometer is an instrument which measure’s either global or diffuse radiation falling on a
horizontal surface. Pyranometer are classified as ‘A’, ‘B’ or ‘C’ based on specifications such
as response time, directional response, temperature response, tilt response and calibration
method. Based on the Seebeck or thermoelectric effect, a pyranometer is operated based on the
measurement of a temperature difference between a clear surface and a dark surface. The main
components of pyranometer are a thermopile, a glass dome, and an occultating disc.
Thermopile
• As the name implies, it uses a thermocouple used to notice dissimilarity
in temperature between two surfaces.
• These are hot (labeled active) and cold (reference) accordingly. The labeled active
surface is a black surface in flat shape and it is exposed to the atmosphere.
Glass Dome
• Protects the thermopile sensor from rain, wind, etc. This construction of the second
dome gives extra radiation protection among the inner dome & sensor compared to a
single dome.
Occultation Disc
• The occultation disc is mainly used to measure the radiation of blocking beam & diffuse
radiation from the panel surface.
Pyranometer consists of a black surface which heats up when exposed to solar radiation. The
hot junctions of thermopile are attached to the black surface, while the cold junctions are
located under a guard plate so that they do not receive the radiation directly. As a result an emf
is generated. This emf which is usually in the range of 0 t0 10mv can be read, recorded or
integrated over a period of time and is a measure of global radiation.
1. Outer dome
2. Inner dome
3. Black carbon disk (illuminated by the Sun)
4. Control disk (not illuminated by the Sun)
5. Thermopile temperature sensor
6. Output lead
7. Replaceable silica gel
8. Adjustable screw legs
19
Shading Ring Pyranometer
The pyranometer can also be used for measurement of diffuse radiation. This is done by
mounting it at the center of a semicircular shading ring. The shading ring is fixed in such a way
that its plane is parallel to the plane of path of sun’s daily movement across the sky and it
shades the thermopile element and two glass domes of pyranometer at all the times from direct
sun shine. Consequently the pyranometer measures only the diffuse radiation received from the
sky.
Pyrheliometer
A pyrheliometer is a device that measures solar irradiance coming directly from the sun.
Irradiance refers to the amount of solar radiation obtained per unit area by a given surface
(W/m2). Solar radiation refers to the electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun. The solar
irradiance is the output of light energy from the entire disk of the Sun, measured at the Earth.
The solar spectral irradiance is a measure of the brightness of the entire Sun.
Pyrheliometer measure ‘direct solar radiation’ i.e., the amount of solar energy per unit area per
unit time incident on a plane normal to the position of the sun in the sky, coming directly from
the sun itself. A pyrheliometer needs to be mounted on a solar tracker: a device that points the
instrument at the sun throughout the day.
There are three types of pyrheliometers in use:

i. Angstrom pyrheliometer
ii. Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer
iii. Eppley pyrheliometer
Angstrom pyrheliometer
The circuit for this instrument is shown
schematically in Fig. In this instrument, two thin
manganin strips of size 20mmx2mmx0.1mm are
used to measure the radiation. One of the strips is
blackened, and kept under a shade while the second
strip is exposed to the solar radiation. The
blackened strip is electrically heated till its
temperature matches that of the exposed strip.
Under steady state conditions the energy used for
20
heating the black strip is equal to the solar energy absorbed by the plain strip. The temperatures
from both the strips-are measured using thermocouples, and are connected through
galvanometers, which indicate the equality of temperature.
Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer

The construction of a pyrheliometer is
shown in Fig. It consists of a blackened
silver disk positioned at the lower end of a
tube. The tube entry has an opening with an
aperture angle of 5.7° and the tube is
provided with diaphragms to limit the
aperture angle of the radiation. A
thermocouple is attached at the bottom of
the disc and connected to an instrument
indicating the emf developed by the
thermocouple. The alignment indicator and
two way axis mechanisms are attached to
the instruments, so that alignment of solar (sun) rays (solar radiation) and axis of tube can be
easily carried out.
In working, first with the help of alignment indicator and tracking mechanism, the tube axis is
aligned in the direction of the solar radiation. The aperture opening plus the tube alignment
ensures the falling of the beam radiation on the disc at the bottom of the tube. As the solar
radiation falls on the disc, by absorbing solar energy the disc gets heated up, which interns
indicates the emf in the thermocouple. The emf measured on the indicator is taken as a measure
of the radiation.
Eppley pyrheliometer
The Eppley pyrheliometer measures the length of time that the surface receives sunlight and
the sunshine’s intensity as well. It consists of two concentric silver rings of equal area, one
blackened and the other whitened, connected to a thermopile. The sun’s rays warm the
blackened ring more than they do the whitened one, and this temperature difference produces
an electromotive force that is nearly proportional to the sunlight’s intensity. The electromotive
21
force is automatically measured and recorded and yields a continuous record of the duration
and intensity of the periods of sunlight.
Sunshine Recorder
A sunshine recorder is a meteorological instrument
used for recording the amount of sunlight that a
particular location receives throughout a day. Inside
the recorder's adjustable frame are two important
pieces: a paper strip and a glass sphere that can focus
the sunlight strongly enough to singe the paper.
Sunshine recorder consists of a glass sphere of about

100 mm diameter. It is mounted concentrically with
Spherical bowl with grooves. Its axis is held parallel
to the axis of the earth. The sphere acts as a lens and
focuses the sun’s image of sun along a special thermal sensitive paper/card strip marked with
a time scale. Card strip is held in a groove in a spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the
sphere. Whenever there is bright sunshine, an image is formed on the card strip and this image
formed is intense enough to create a burnt impression on the paper. As the sun moves a burnt
image is created along the paper strip indicating the bright sun shine periods along the strip.
The sphere is supported in various fashions depending upon the place of measurement, like
polar latitude, temperate or tropical.
Actinometer and Bolometer

An actinometer is an instrument that can measure the heating power of radiation. Actinometers
are used in meteorology to measure solar radiation. It involves a chemistry technique that
determines the number of photons by measuring the rate of change of photo-induced responses
in a chemical system.
There are three steps to follow to operate a chemical actinometer:
• First, the gas of interest is filled into a photolysis reactor.
• Then, the actinometer is exposed to heat radiation.
• Finally, the photochemical rate is measured.
Bolometer
A bolometer is a device that measures radiation by measuring the temperature of an object
which is warmed by absorption of the radiation. The device functions by using a temperature-
22
resistant component where its resistance varies accordingly with temperature. The resistive
components can be thermistors or barretters.
• Thermistor – This is constructed of semiconductor substance and has temperature
coefficient as negative which means that resistance decreases with increment in
temperature.
• Barretter – This is a type of metallic wire that has a temperature coefficient as positive
which means that resistance decreases with a decrease in temperature.
In general, a bolometer device comprises an absorptive component like a thin metal layered
material that is connected with a thermal reservoir using a thermal connection. The output is
that any kind of radiation that affects the absorptive substance increases its temperature level
more than the reservoir. It can be said that the more absorptive power is, the higher is the
temperature level. The change in temperature value can be known directly from the resistive
thermometer.
23

Module 1

Uploaded by

Module 1

Uploaded by

Module – 1

• Solar Radiation: Extra-Terrestrial radiation, spectral distribution of extra terrestrial radiation,

Annual production of coal in India [production rate (Mt/Year] v/s Year

Electricity produced from nuclear power in India

Need for nonconventional energy sources

Salient features of non-conventional energy resources

Oscillation water columns

Inverted- Pendulum device

– High power output

Solar radiation incident outside the earth's atmosphere is called

Spectral Distribution of Extra Terrestrial Radiation

When the sun is closest to the earth, on

The latest value of Gsc is 1366.1 W/m2

Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface

Therefore the energy is reflected back to space by:

Solar Radiation Data

There are three types of pyrheliometers in use:

Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer

Sunshine recorder consists of a glass sphere of about

Actinometer and Bolometer

You might also like