CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 CHAPTER 2 CHAPTER 3 CHAPTER 4 CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 CHAPTER 12 CHAPTER 13 CHAPTER

R 13 CHAPTER 14 CHAPTER 15 CHAPTER 16 Basic Cost Concepts for Decision Making Marginal Costing Decision Making, Areas of Decision Making Standard Costing and Variance Analysis Pricing Decisions, Pareto Analysis Transfer Pricing Target Costing, Life Cycle Costing Just in time Approach, Material Requirement Planning and Enterprise Resource Planning Activity Based Cost Management Total Quality Management (TQM) Value Chain Analysis Budgetary Control and Performance Measurement Linear Programming Critical Path Analysis & PERT Simulation Learning Curve Theory

1. Basic Cost Concepts for Decision Making

Question 1 Write short notes on Responsibility Accounting. (May 1996) Answer It refers to a control system of management accounting and reporting. The basis of responsibility accounting is the creation/recognition of various responsibility/decision centres in an organization. The individual Managers of these centres are made responsible for the incurrence and control of costs relating to their responsibility centres. It aims of control of cost and not its determination. It will examine the responsibility for cost under review. The performance of the Mangers of the various responsibility centres is judged by assessing how far they have been able to monitor these costs. This is done through performance reports. The method can be tailored according to the needs of an organization. Thus responsibility accounting is a primary management tool which provides complete suggestions for corrective action. The preparation of an organization chart, individual interest, probability of resistance and feeling of dissatisfaction are the limitation of responsibility accounting. The names of various responsibility centres are: (i) Cost Centre, (ii) Profit Centre, (iii) Investmetn Centre, (iv) Contribution Centre, (v) Revenue Centre and (vi) Service Cost Centre. Question 2 (a) Costs may be classified in a variety of ways according to their nature and the information needs of the management Explain. (Nov. 96) (b) Indicate the major areas of short-term decisions in which differential cost analysis is useful. (Nov. 96) (c) Relevant cost analysis helps in drawing the attention of managers to those elements of cost which are relevant for the decision. Comment. (Nov. 96) Answer (a) Cost classification is the process of grouping costs according to their characteristics. Costs are classified or grouped according to their common characteristics. Costs may be classified according to elements, according to functions or operations, according to their behaviour, according to controllability or according to normality. The break up of the aggregate costs into relevant types, is an essential pre-requisite of decision making as well as of controlling costs. Classification of costs on different bases is thus necessary for various purposes. For the purpose of decision-making and control, costs are distinguished on the basis of their relevance to different type of decisions and control functions. The importance of distinguishing cost as direct or indirect lies in the fact that direct costs of a product or an activity can be accurately allocated while indirect costs have to be apportioned o the basis of certain assumptions. This is so because direct costs are controllable at the operational level whereas indirect costs are not amenable to such control. (b) Cost information is required both for short-term and long-run managerial problems. Differential costs are of particular use in short-term problems which are non-repetitive, onetime, ad-hoc problems. The following are the most common short-term problems and areas where differential costs analysis may be deployed. 1. Accept or reject special order decisions. 2. Make or buy decisions. 3. Sell or process decisions. 4. Reduce or maintain price decisions. 5. Add or drop product decisions. 6. Operate or shut down decisions. (c) Relevant costs are pertinent or valid costs for a decision. These bear upon or influence decision and are directly related to the decisions to be made. These are critical to the decisions, and have significance for it. These are the cots whish generally respond to managerial decision making, and have significance in arriving at correct conclusions. These costs are capable of making of difference in user-decisions and enter into a choice between alternative courses of action. In specific terms relevant costs for decisions are defined as expected future costs that will differ under alternatives. Relevant costs are futuristic in nature. These are the costs that are expected to occur during the time period covered by the decisions. These costs are different between alternative being considered. Only costs that differ among decisions alternatives are relevant to a decision.

(b) Briefly explain the concept of Opportunity Costs. (Nov 1996) (b) Opportunity Cost: Opportunity cost is primarily an economic concept. In Economics, the opportunity cost of a designated alternative is the greatest net benefit lost by selecting an alternative. It is the benefit given by rejecting one alternative and, selecting another. Accounting takes the same view and defines it as the benefits forgone by rejecting the second best alternative in favour of the best. Opportunity costs represent the measurable value of opportunity bypassed by rejecting an alternative use of resources. It is the value in its best alternative use the profit that is lost by the diversion of an input factor from one use to another. It is defined as the maximum contribution that is forgone by using limited resources for a particular purpose. Opportunity cost concept is helpful to the management is making profitability calculations when one or more of the inputs required by one or more of the alternative courses of action is already available.

Question 3 Why is meant by incremental Revenue? (Nov 1997) Answer Incremental Revenue: Incremental revenue is the additional revenue that arise from the production or sale of a group of additional units. It is one of the two basic concepts the other being incremental cost which go together with differential cost analysis. Incremental cost in fact is the added cost due to change either in the level of activity of in the nature of activity. Question 4 Costs may be classified in a variety of ways according to their nature and information needs of the management. Discuss. (Nov 1997) Answer Costs can be classified according to their nature and information needs of the management in the following manner: (i) By element: Under this classification costs are classified into (a) direct costs and (b) Indirect costs according to elements viz., materials, labour and expenses. (ii) By function: Here costs are classified as: Production cost; administration cost; selling costs; distribution cost; research; development costs, etc. (iii) By behaviour: According to this classification costs are classified as fixed; variable and semi variable costs. Fixed costs can be further classified as committed and discretionary. (iv) By controllability: Costs are classified as controllable and non-controllable costs. (v) By normality: Under this classification cost are segregated as normal and abnormal costs. Management of a business house requires cost information for decision making under different circumstances. Fr example they require such information for fixing selling price, controlling and reducing costs. To perform all these functions a classification of cost according to their nature and information needs in an essential pre-requisite of the management. Question 5 What are incremental costs and sunk costs? Discuss. (Nov 1998) Answer Incremental costs: The difference in total cost between two alternatives is an incremental cost. It is synonymous to differential cost. Incremental cost arises due to change of the level of activity. The change may be due to adding to a new product; change of channels of distribution, adding capacity etc. Incremental costs are not necessarily variable in nature. Sun costs: Costs which do not change under given circumstances and do not play any role in decision making process are known as sunk costs. They are historical costs incurred in the past. In other words, these are the costs which have been incurred by a decision made in past and cannot be changed by any decision made in the future. These costs are, however, best basis of predicting future costs. Amortisation of past expenses is the clearest kind of sunk cost. Question 6 What are relevant costs? Identify two common pitfalls in relevant cost analyse. (Nov 1998) Answer Relevant costs: Relevant costs are those expected future costs which are essential to a decision. The two key aspect of these costs are as follows: 3

(i) They must be expected future costs. (ii) They must be different among the alternative courses of action. For example, in a decision relating to the replacement of an old machine, the written down value of the existing machine is not relevant but its sale price is relevant. Relevant cost analysis helps in drawing the attention of managers to those elements of costs which are relevant for the decision. Two common pitfalls in relevant cost analysis are as under: First pitfall in relevant cost analysis is to assume that all variable costs are relevant : All variable costs are not relevant. Even among future costs, those variable costs which will not differ under various alternatives are irrelevant. For example, a company proposes to rearrange plant facilities and estimates its future costs under two alternatives, as under: Particulars Do not re-arrange Re-arrange Rs. Rs. Direct material cost / 10 10 unit Direct labour cost / unit 05 04 In the above example, the direct material cost (variable cost) remains constant under both alternatives, hence it is irrelevant to the decision as to whether plant facilities are to be rearranged or not. Second pitfall is to assume that all fixed costs are irrelevant. All fixed costs are not irrelevant. If fixed expenses remain unchanged under different alternatives such expenses are only irrelevant to the decisions at hand but if they are expected to be altered they should be considered as relevant. For example, if the plant capacity is 50,000 units and additional 10,000 units can only be manufactured by expanding capacity which entails additional fixed expenses of Rs.50,000. This increase in fixed expenses is relevant to the decision whether the firm should accept order for additional 10,000 units or not.

Question 7 Distinguish between Marginal cost and Differential Cost. (May 1999) Answer Marginal cost represents the increase or decrease in total cost which occurs with a small change in output say, a unit of output. In Cost Accounting variable costs represent marginal cost. Differential cost is the change (increase or decrease) in the total cost (variable as well as fixed) due to change in the level of activity, technology or production process or method of production. In other words, it can be defined as the cost of one unit of product or service which would be avoided if that unit was not produced or provided. The main point which distinguishes marginal cost and differential as that change in fixed cost when volume of production increases or decreases by a unit of production. In the case of differential cost variable as well as fixed cost. i.e. both costs change due to change in the level of activity, whereas under marginal costing only variable cost changes due to change in the level of activity. Question 8 (a) Explain the concept of discretionary costs. Give three examples. (b) Discuss, how control may be exercised over discretionary costs. (Nov 1999) Answer (a) Discretionary costs can be explained with the help of following two important features (i) They arise from periodic (usually yearly) decisions regarding the maximum outlay to be incurred. (ii) They are not tied to a clear cause and effect relationship between inputs and outputs. Examples of discretionary costs includes: advertising, public relations, executive training, teaching, research, health care and management consulting services. The note worthy feature of discretionary costs is that mangers are seldom confident that the correct amounts are being spent. (b) Control over discretionary costs : To control discretionary costs control points/parameters may be established. But these points need to be divised individually. 4

For research and development function to control discretionary costs, dates may be established for submitting major reports to management. For advertising and sales promotion, such costs may be controlled by pre-setting targets. In the case of employees benefits, discretionary costs may be controlled by calling a meeting of employees union and making them aware that the company would meet only the fixed costs and the variable costs should be met by them. Question 9 What are the applications of incremental cost techniques in making managerial decisions? (May 2000) Answer Incremental cost technique: It is a technique used in the preparation of ad-hoc information in which only cost and income differences between alternative courses of action are taken into consideration. This technique is applicable to situations where fixed costs alter. The essential pre-requisite for making managerial decisions by using incremental cost technique, is to compare the incremental costs with incremental revenues. So long as the incremental revenue is greater than incremental costs, the decision should be in favour of the proposal. Applications of incremental cost techniques in making managerial decisions The important areas in which incremental cost analysis could be used for managerial decision making are as under : (i) Introduction of a new product (ii) Discontinuing a product, suspending or closing down a segment of the business (iii) Whether to process a product further or not (iv) Acceptance of an additional order form a special customer at lower than existing price (v) Opening of new sales territory and branch. (vi) Optimizing investment plan out of multiple alternatives. (vii) Make or buy decisions (viii) Submitting tenders (ix) Lease or buy decisions (x) Equipment replacement decisions Question 10 (a) Comment on the use of opportunity cost for the purpose of : (i) decision-making and (ii) cost control (May 2001) (b) State three applications of direct costing. (May 2001) Answer (a) (i) Decision making: Opportunity costs apply to the use of scarce resources, where resources are not secure, there is no sacrifice from the use of these resources. Where a course of action requires the use of scarce resources, it is necessary to incorporate the lost profit which will be foregone from using scarce resources. If resources have no alternative use only the additional cash flow resulting from the course of action should be included in decision making as relevant cost. (ii) Cost control: The conventional variance analysis will report an adverse usage variance and adverse sales volume variance. However, the failure to achieve the budgeted optimum level of output may be due to inefficient usage of scarce resources. The foregone contribution should therefore be charged to the manger responsible for controlling the usage of scarce resources and not to the sales manager because the failure to achieve the budgeted sales is due to the failure to use scarce resources efficiently. Thus if resources are scarce, the usage variance should reflect the acquisition cost plus budgeted contribution per unit of the scarce resources. If the lost sales is made good in subsequent periods, the real opportunity cost will consists of lost interest arising from delay in receiving the net cash-flows and not the foregone contribution. (b) Three applications of direct costing are as follows: (i) Stock valuation (ii) Minimum quantity to be produced to recover pattern or mould cost, (iii) Close down decisions like closing down of a department or shop. Question 11 Explain with one example each that sun cost is irrelevant in making decisions, but irrelevant costs are not sunk costs. (May 2001) Answer Sunk cost is a historical cost incurred in the past. In other words it is a cost of a resource already acquired. Future decisions in respect of this resource will not be affected by it. For example, book value of machinery. Hence sunk costs are irrelevant in decision making.

Irrelevant costs are not necessary sunk costs. For example, when a comparison of two alternative production methods using the same material quantity is made, then direct material cost is not affected by the decision but this material cost is not sunk cost. Question 12 Sunk cost is irrelevant in decision-making, but irrelevant costs are not sunk costs. Explain with example. Answer Sunk costs are costs that have been created by a decision made in the past and that cannot be changed by any decision that will be made in the future. For example, the written down value of assets previously purchased are sunk costs. Sunk costs are not relevant for decision making because they are past costs. But not all irrelevant costs are sunk costs. For example, a comparison of two alternative production methods may result in identical direct material costs for both the alternatives. In this case, the direct material cost will remain the same whichever alternative is chosen. In this situation, though direct material cost is the future cost to be incurred in accordance with the production, it is irrelevant, but, it is not a sunk cost. Question 13 How has the composition of manufacturing costs changed during recent years? How has this change affected the design of cost accounting systems? Answer Traditionally, manufacturing companies classified the manufacturing costs to be allocated to the products into (a) direct materials. (b) direct labour and (c) indirect manufacturing costs. In the present day context, characterised by intensive global competition, large scale automation of manufacturing process , computerization and product diversification to cater to the changing consumer tastes and preferences has forced companies to refine their costing systems to provide better measurement of the overhead costs used by different cost objects. Accordingly, manufacturing costs are classified in to three broad categories as under: 1. Direct cost: As many total costs relating to cost objects as feasible are classified into direct cost. The objective is to trace as many costs as possible in to direct and to reduce the amount of costs classified into indirect because the greater the proportion of direct costs the greater the accuracy of the cost system. 2. Indirect cost pools: Increase the number of indirect cost pools so that each of these pools is more homogeneous. In a homogeneous cost pool, all the costs will have the same cause-and-effect relationship with the cost allocation base. 3. Use cost-and-effect criterion for identifying the cost allocation base for each indirect cost pool. The change in the classification of manufacturing costs as above has lead to the development of Activity Based Costing (ABC). Activity Based Costing refines a costing system by focusing on individual activities as the fundamental cost objects. An activity is an event, task or unit of work with a specified purpose as for example, designing, set up, etc. ABC system calculates the costs of individual activities and assigns costs to cost objects such as products or services on the basis of the activities consumed to produce the product or provide the service.

2. Marginal Costing
Question 14 What is contribution? How is it related to profit? 6

(May 1998) Answer Contribution is difference between sales revenue and variable cost. It is related to profit as apparent from the following relation: Contribution = Fixed Cost + Profit Or Profit = Contribution Fixed Cost Question 15 Distinguish between absorption costing and marginal costing. (May 1998) Answer

Main points of distinction between Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing are as follows:
1 . Absorption Costing It is a total cost technique i.e. both variable and fixed costs are charged to products, processes or operations. Fixed factory overheads are absorbed by the production units on the basis of a predetermined fixed factory overhead recovery rate based on normal capacity. Under/over absorbed overheads are adjusted before arriving at the figure of profit for a particular period. Inspite of best possible forecast and equitable basis of apportionment/ allocation of fixed costs, under or over recovery of fixed overheads generally arises. Managerial decisions under this costing technique are based on profit i.e. excess of sales value over total costs, which may at times lead to erroneous decisions. Marginal Costing Here only variable costs are charged to products, processes or operations. Fixed costs are charged as period costs to the profit statement of the same period in which they are incurred. The cost of production under this method does not include fixed factory overheads and therefore, the value of closing stock comprises of only variable costs. No part of the fixed expenses is included in the value of closing stock and carried over to the next period.

2 .

3 .

Since fixed overheads are not included in the cost of production, therefore the question of their under/over recovery does not arise.

4 .

Here decisions are made on the basis of contribution i.e. excess of sales price over variable costs. This basis of decision making results in optimum profitability.

Question 16 List out the assumptions of break-even analysis. (Nov 1998) Answer The assumptions underlying break even analysis are as below: (i) All costs can be easily classified into fixed and variable components. (ii) Both revenue and cost functions are linear over the range of activity under consideration. 7

(iii) Prices of output and input remain unchanged. (iv) Productivity of the factors of production will remain the same. (v) The state of technology and the process of production will not change. (vi) There will be no significant change in the levels of inventory (vii) The company manufactures a single product. (viii) In the case of a multi-product company, the sales mix will remain unchanged.

Question 17 What are the limitations of Marginal Costing? Explain. (Nov 1998) Answer Limitations of Marginal Costing: 1. Marginal Costing assures that all costs can be classified into fixed and variable. But it is not so, as there are costs which are neither fixed or variable. For example, various amenities provided to workers may have to relation either to volume of production or time factor. 2. Contribution of a product itself is not a guide for optimum profitability unless it is linked with the key factor. 3. Marginal Costing ignores time factor and investment. For example, the marginal cost of two jobs may be the same but the time taken for their completion and the cost of machines used may differ. The true cost of a job which takes longer time and uses costlier machine would be higher. This fact is not disclosed by marginal costing. 4. The overheads of fixed nature cannot altogether be excluded particularly in large contracts while valuing work-in-progress. In order to show the correct position, fixed overheads have to be included in work-inprogress. 5. In the long run, the selling prices should be based on total cost i.e. inclusive of fixed cost also. In the short run or in special situations when a product is sold below the total cost customers may insist on the continuation of reduced prices forever which may not be possible in all cases. Further, sales staff may mistake marginal cost for total cost and sell at a price which will result in loss or low profit. Hence, sales staff should be cautioned while giving marginal cost. 6. The main assumptions regarding behaviour of costs are not true. The variable costs do not remain constant per unit of output. There may be changes in the prices of raw materials, wage rates etc. after a certain level of output has been reached due to shortage of material, shortage of skilled labour, concessions of bulk purchases etc. Similarly, the fixed cost does not remain static. They may change from one period to another. For example salaries bill may go up because of annual increments or due to change in pay rate etc. Question 18 What is margin of Safety? How can margin of safety be improved? (May 8

1999) Answer Margin of Safety Margin of safety is the excess of sales over the break-even sales. It may also be considered as the excess of production over break-even point. It can be expressed in value as well as in percentage. The size of margin of safety shows the strength of the business. Small size of margin of safety indicates that the firm has large fixed expenses and is more vulnerable to changes in sales. In other words, if the margin of safety is large, a slight fall in sales may not affect the business very much but when it is small then a slight fall in sales may adversely affect the business. The margin of safety is calculated by using the following formula: Margin of safety = =

Profit

P/Vratio Profit (Contribut ion/Sales)

or

Margin of safety is also immensely useful for making interfirm comparison. This is being done by calculating their margin of safety ratio. This ratio can be calculated by suing the following formula: Margin of safety ratio = =

Margin Safety of

Sales Actual - Break sales sales even Sales

100

100

Measures for improving margin of safety Margin of safety can be improved by taking the following measures: 1. Increasing the selling price, provided the demand is inelastic so as to absorb the increased prices. 2. Reduction in fixed expenses. 3. Reduction in variable expenses 4. Increasing the sales volume provided capacity is available. 5. Substitution or introduction of a product mix such that more profitable lines are introduced. Question 19 What are the limitations of a break-even chart? (May 1999) Answer The limitations of break even chart are as follows: 1. White preparing a break-even chart, it is assumed that revenue and costs can be represented with the help of straight lines. It s not always be true. 2. The preparation of a break-even chart requires the segregation of semi-variable costs into fixed and variable components. It may into always be possible to segregate semi-variable costs into fixed and variable elements accurately. There may be situations when semi-variable costs cannot be split. 3. A break-even chart assumes that selling price and variable cost per unit are constant at all levels of activity. It may not always be true. Selling price as well as variable cost may either increase or decrease with the change in volume. Fixed costs also tend to vary beyond a certain output. 4. When a firm produces a number of products the appointment of fixed expenses over various products may be different and often it may be done arbitrarily. 5. A Break-even chart assumes that business condition will not change. This is hardly so. 6. A break-even chart does not consider the amount of 9

capital employed in the business, a very important factor for determining profitability of a concern. Question 20 (a) Discuss the relationship between Angle of incidence. Break-even Level and Margin of Safety. (Nov 1999) Answer (a) Angle of Incidence: It is the angle between total sales line and total cost line drawn in the case of break-even. It provides useful information about the rate at which profits are being made. The larger the angle, the higher the rate of profit or vice-versa. Break-even level: It is that level of sales (or production) at which the sales revenue exactly equals total costs, both variable and fixed. In other words, it is the level of activity at which the firm neither earns a profit nor suffers a loss. Margin of safety: It is the difference between total sales and sales at break-even point. In other words margin of safety is the amount of sales above the break-even point. If there is a fall in the sales to the extent of margin of safety, the firm will not be in the red. Relationship between Angle of Incidence, Break-even level and Margin of Safety. 1. If the break-even point is low and angle of incidence is large. The margin of safety is large and the business enjoys financial stability. A low break-even point indicates that the business could be run profitably even if there is a fall in sales, unless the sales are very low. 2. If the break-even point is low and angle of incidence is small the conditions are the same as in 1 above except that the rate of profit earning capacity is not so high as in 1. 3. If the Break-even point is high and angle of incidence is small. The margin of safety is low. The business is very vulnerable, even a small reduction in activity may result is a loss. 4. If the break-even point is high and angle of incidence is large. This shows that the margin of safety is low; the business is likely to incur losses through a small reduction in activity. However, after the break-even point, the business makes the profit at a high rate. Question 21 Mention any four important factors to be considered in Marginal Costing Decisions. (Nov 1999) Answer Important factors to be considered in Marginal Costing Decisions are as follows: (i) Whether the product or production makes a contribution, (ii) In the selection alternatives, additional fixed costs if any should be considered. (iii) The continuity of demand after expression and its impact on selling price are to be considered. (iv) Non-cost factors such as the need to keep labour force intact and governmental attitude are also to be taken into account. Question 22 Briefly explain the methods of separating semi-variable costs into their fixed and variable elements. (May 2000) Answer Semi-variable costs as the name suggests are partly fixed and partly variable. The methods for separating the semivariable costs into their fixed and variable elements have 10

been discussed briefly as under: (i) Graphical method: Under this method, a large number of observations regarding the total costs at different levels of output are plotted on a graph with the output on the X-axis and the total cost on the Y-axis. Then, the by judgment, a line of best fit, which passes through all or most of the points is drawn. The point at which this line cuts the Y-axis indicates the total fixed cost component in the total cost. If a line is drawn at this point parallel to the X-axis, this indicates the fixed cost. The variable cost at any level of output, is derived by deducting this fixed cost element from the total cost. (ii) High points and low points method: Under this method, the difference between the total cost at highest and lowest volume is divided by the difference between the sales value at the highest and lowest volume. The quotient thus obtained gives the rate of variable cost in relation to sales value. The fixed cost is the remainder; i.e., total cost minus variable cost. (iii) Comparison by period or level of activity method: Under this method, the variable cost per unit may be determined by comparing two levels of output with the amount of expenses at those levels. Since the fixed element does not change, therefore the variable elements of cost may be ascertained with the help of the following formula:

Change theamount expenses in of Change the in quantityoutput of

(iv) Least squared method: This is the best method of separating semi-variable costs into their fixed and variable elements. It is a statistical method and is based on finding out a line of best fit for a number of observations. The method uses the lower equation y = mx + c; where m represents the variable element of cost per unit, V represents the total fixed cost, y represents the total cost, V represents the volume of output. The total cost is thus split into fixed and variable elements by solving this equation. (v) Analytical method: An attempt is made under this method to judge empirically the proportion of semivariable cost and fixed cost. The degree of variability is determined for each item of semi-variable cost. Once this has been done, the method is easy to apply. Question 23 Cost is not the only criterion for deciding in favour of shut down Briefly explain. (May 2000) Answer Cost is not only criterion for deciding in the favour of shut down. Non-cost factors worthy of consideration in this regard are as follows: (i) Interest of workers, if the workers are discharged, it may become difficult to get skilled workers later, on reopening of the factory. Also shut-down may create problems, (ii) In the face of competition it may difficult to reestablish the market for the product. (iii) Plant may become obsolete or depreciate at a faster rate or get rusted. Thus, heavy capital expenditure may have to be incurred on re-opening. Question 24 Explain, how Cost Volume Profit (CVP) - based sensitivity analysis can help mangers cope with uncertainty. (Nov 2000) Answer 11

Sensitivity analysis focuses on how a result will be changed if the original estimates or the underlying assumptions change. Cost Volume Profit (CVP) based sensitivity analysis can help mangers to provide answers to the following questions to cope with uncertainty. 1. What will be the profit if the sales mix changes from that originally predicted? 2. What will be the profit if fixed costs increase by 10% and variable costs decline by 5%. The use of spreadsheet packages has enabled mangers to develop CVP computerised models which can answer the above questions. Managers can now consider alternative plans by keying the information into a computer, which can quickly show changes both graphically and numerically. Thus mangers can study various combinations of changes in selling prices, fixed costs, variable costs and product mix, and can react quickly without waiting for formal reports from the accountant. In this manner the use of CVP based sensitivity analysis can help mangers to cope up with uncertainty. Question 25 Enumerate the limitations of using the marginal costing technique. (May 2001) Answer Marginal costing is defined as the ascertainment of marginal cost and of the effect on profit of changes in volume or type of output by differentiating between fixed costs and variable costs. Limitations of Marginal Costing Techniques: The limitations of using the marginal costing technique are as follows: 1. It is difficult to classify exactly the expenses into fixed and variable category. Most of the expenses are neither totally variable nor wholly fixed. 2. Contribution itself is not a guide unless it is linked with the key factor. 3. Sales staff may mistake marginal cost for total cost and sell at a price; which will result in loss or low profits. Hence, sales staff should be cautioned while giving marginal cost. 4. Overheads of fixed nature cannot altogether be excluded particularly in large contracts, while valuing the work-in-progress. In order to show the correct position fixed overheads have to be included in workin-progress. 5. Some of the assumptions regarding the behaviour of various costs are not necessarily true in a realistic situation. For example, the assumption that fixed cost will remain static throughout is not correct. Question 25 Briefly discuss on curvilinear CVP analysis. (Nov 2001) Answer In CVP analysis, the usual assumption is that the total sales line and variable cost line will have linear relationship, that is, these lines will be straight lines. However, in actual practice it is unlikely to have a linear relationship for two reasons, namely: - after the saturation point of existing demand, the sales value may show a downward trend. - the average unit variable cost declines initially, reflecting the fact that, as output increase the firm will be able to obtain bulk discounts on the purchase of raw materials and can also benefit from division of labour. When the plant is operated at further higher levels of output, due to bottlenecks and breakdowns the 12

variable cost per unit will tend to increase. Thus the law of increasing costs may operate and the variable cost per unit may increase after reaching a particular level of output. In such cases, the contribution will not increase in linear proportion i.e. based on the phenomenon of diminishing marginal productivity, the total cost lie will not be straight, as assumed but will be of curvilinear shape. This situation will give rise to two break even points. The optimum profit is earned at the point where the distance between sales and total cost is the greatest.
Loss A2 Profit
sts Co tl oa T

Tta ol Rv ee ne u

A1 a A2 are nd b ak-even p ts re oin

) .o s R ( l a t T
Loss A1

Qu tity an
Question 27 Use of absorption costing method for the valuation of finished goods inventory provides incentive for overproduction. Elucidate the statement. (May 2002) Answer When absorption costing method is used, production fixed overheads are charged to products and are included in product costs. Consequently, the closing stocks are valued on total cost (including fixed overheads) basis. The net effect is that the charge of fixed overheads to P/L account gets reduced, if the closing stock is greater than the opening stock. This situation has the effect of inflating the profit for the period. Where stock levels are likely to fluctuate significantly, profits may be distorted if calculated on absorption costing basis. If marginal costing is used, since the fixed costs are charged off to P/L account as period cost, such a situation will not arise. The impact of using absorption costing on profits can be summerised as under: - When sales are equal to production, profits will be the same under absorption costing and marginal costing. - If production is higher than sales, the absorption costing will post higher profits that marginal costing. - If sales are in excess of production, absorption costing will show lower profits than marginal costing. Since profit calculation in absorption costing can produce strange result, the managers may deliberately alter the stock levels to influence the profits if absorption costing is used. Hence, it is true to say that if absorption costing method is used managers have the incentive to over produce to show better result.

3. Decision Making, Areas of Decision Making

Question 28 State the non-cost factors to be considered in make/buy decisions. Answer Non-cast factors in make / buy decisions: 13 (May 2001)

(i) Possible use of released production capacity and facility as a result of buying instead of making. (ii) Sources of supply should be reliable and they are capable of meeting un-interruptedly the requirement of the concern. (iii) Assurance about the quality of goods supplied by outside supplier. (iv) Reasonable certainty, from the side of supplier about, meeting the delivery dates. (v) The decision of buying the product / component from outside suppliers should be discouraged, if the technical know how used is highly secretive. (vi) The decision of buying from outside sources should not result in the laying off of workers and create industrial relation problems. In fact, on buying from outside the resources freed should be better utilised else where in the concern. (vii) The decision of manufacturing product / component should not adversely affect the concerns relationship with suppliers. (viii) Ensure that more than one supplier of product/component is available to reduce the risk of outside buying. (ix) In case the necessary technical expertise is not available internally then it is better to buy the requirements from outside. Question 29 Enumerate the factors involved in decisions relating to expansion of capacity (May 2001) Answer The factors involved in decisions relating to expansion of capacity are enumerated as below: (i) Additional fixed overheads involved should be considered. (ii) Possible decrease in selling price due to increased production capacity. (iii) Whether the demand id sufficient to absorb the increased production. thereafter. Question 30 (a) Discuss the role of costs in product-mix decisions. (Nov 2001) Answer (a) Role of costs in product mix decisions: All types of cost involved in cost accounting system are useful in decision making. The cost which plays a major role in product mix decision is the relevant cost. Costs to be relevant should meet the following criteria: (i) The costs should be expected as future costs. (ii)The costs differ among the alternatives course of action. While making decision about product mix using the facilities and other available resources, the end results should always aim at profit minimisation. Variable costs are relevant costs in product mix decisions and consequently contribution plays a major role in minimisation of profit. In addition to the relevancy of costs, the other factors and costs that should be taken into account at the time of deciding the products mix are: (i) The available production capacity (ii) The limiting factor (s) (iii) Contribution per unit of the limiting factor (iv) Market demand for the products. (v) Opportunity costs Question 31 State the relative economics of the makes vs. buy decision in management control. (Nov 2001) Answer The relative economics of the make vs. buy decision is management control: Generally for taking a make vs. buy decision comparison is made between the suppliers price and the marginal cost of making plus the opportunity cost. Make vs. buy decision is a strategic decision, and, therefore, both short-term as well as well as long-term thinking about various cost and other aspects needs to be done. A company generally buy a component instead of making it under following situations: 1. If it costs less to buy rather than to manufacture it internally; 2. If the return on the necessary investment to be made to manufacture is not attractive enough; 3. If the company does not have the requisite skilled manpower to make; 4. If the concern feels that manufacturing internally will mean additional labour problem; 5. If adequate managerial manpower is not available to take charge of the extra work of manufacturing; 6. If the component shows much seasonal demand resulting in a considerable risk of maintaining inventories; 7. If transport and other infrastructure facilities are adequately available; 8. If the process of making is confidential or patented; 14

9. If there is risk of technological obsolescence for the component such that it does not encourage capital investment in the component. Question 32 The use of Absorption costing method in decision-making process leads to anomalies. Discuss. Answer In absorption costing, fixed overheads are assigned to products by establishing overhead absorption rates based on budgeted or normal output. By using absorption costing principles, it is possible for profit to decline when sales volume increases. If the stock levels fluctuate significantly, profits may be distorted because stock changes will significantly affect the amount of fixed overheads allocated to a period. If profits are measured on monthly or quarterly or on periodical basis, seasonal variations in sales may cause significant fluctuations in profits. Internal profit statements on monthly or quarterly basis are used for measuring the managerial performance. In the circumstances, managers may deliberately alter inventory levels to influence profit, if absorption costing is used. When sales are less and the closing inventory increases, a part of the fixed overheads contained in the value of the closing stock is reduced from the fixed costs allocated to production for the period. Thus, if sales are reduced, inventories will increase and absorption cost will post higher profits. Similarly, if sales are increased as compared to production, inventories will be reduced and absorption costing will return lower profits.

4. Standard Costing and Variance Analysis Question 33 Which accounting plan of standard costing helps to convert standards into actual by using the ratios? (May 1996) Answer Dual plan. Question 34 Describe the role of cost accountant in the area of operating efficiency. (May 1997) Answer Role of Cost Accountant in the area of operating efficiency: Operating efficiency relates to the efficient use of various resources, viz material, labour, machines etc. The cost accountant can contribute towards efficient and effective use of man, material and machine by introducing control and accounting procedures. In the area of labour efficiency, the role of cost accountant includes reporting efficiency variances and evaluating wage incentive schemes. In the case of material, efficiency can be increased by introducing effective material control and accounting procedures and computing material usage variance. In the area of machine efficiency, his objective would be to ensure optimum utilization of machine time. He may also give his advice based on his information and analysis, to the management, towards the replacement of old machine with the latest one. The efficiency of operating procedures will be monitored by industrial engineers and organization & methods specialists but the cost accountant may be required to calculate the net savings to be expected from the procedural change. Question 35 What are the basic differences between Standard Costing and Budgetary Control? (Nov 1997) Answer Basic differences between Standard Costing and Budgetary Control are as follows: (i) Standard costs are ascertained for material labour and overheads Here the control of each elements of cost is effected by comparing actual costs with standard costs of actual output. Whereas budgets are prepared for different functions like sales, production capital assets etc. of business. Budgetary control here is concerned with the overall profitability and financial position of the business. (ii) Range of standard costing is narrow as it is mainly confined to the control of production costs. But the range of budgeting is wider than that of standard costing. It in fact covers sales, capital and financial expenses as well. (iii) Standard costing is confined of the projection of cost accounts only whereas budgetary control includes projection of financial accounts as well. (iv) For exercising control, variances are computed in standard costing as well as budgetary control. But these variances are normally recorded in different cost accounts under standard costing whereas they are not revealed under budgets. (v) Under standard costing various causes of variances in respect of each cost element can be analysed in minute detail and corrective action taken accordingly. Whereas budgetary control system deals with total expenses and revenues based on estimates. Question 36 How are cost variances disposed off in a standard costing system? Explain. (Nov 1998)
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Answer There is no unanimity of opinion among Cost Accountants regarding the disposition of variances. The following are commonly used methods for their disposition. 1. Transfer all variances to Profit and Loss Account. Under this method, stock of work-inprogress, finished stock and cost of sales are maintained at standard cost and variances arising are transferred to profit and loss account. 2. Distributing variances on pro-rata basis over the cost of sales, work-in-progress and finished goods stocks by using suitable basis. 3. Write off quantity variance to profit and loss account and spread price variance over to cost of sales, work in progress and finished goods. The reason behind apportioning variance to inventories and cost of sales is that they represent costs although they are derived as variances. Question 37 Calculation of variances in standard costing is not an end in itself, but a means to an end. Discuss. (May 1999) Answer The crux of standard costing lies in variance analysis. Standard costing is the technique whereby standard costs are predetermined and subsequently compared with the recorded actual costs. It is a technique of cost ascertainment and cost control. It establishes predetermined estimates of the cost of products and services based on managements standards of efficient operation. It thus lays emphasis on what the cost should be. These should be costs are when compared with the actual costs. The difference between standard cost and actual cost of actual output is defined as the variance. The variance in other words in the difference between the actual performance and the standard performance. The calculations of variances are simple. A variance may be favourable or unfavourable. If the actual cost is less than the standard cost, the variance is favourarable but if the actual cost is more than the standard cost, the variance will be unfavourable. They are easily expressible and do not provide detailed analysis to enable management of exercise control over them. It is not enough to know the figures of these variances from month to month. We infact are required to trace their origin and causes of occurrence for taking necessary remedial steps to reduce / eliminate them. A detailed probe into the variance particularly the controllable variances helps the management to ascertain: (i) the amount of variance (ii) the factors or causes of their occurrence (iii) the responsibility to be laid on executives and departments and (iv) corrective actions which should be taken to obviate or reduce the variances. Mere calculation and analysis of variances is of no use. The success of variance analysis depends upon how quickly and effectively the corrective actions can be taken on the analysed variances. In fact variance gives information. The manager needs to act on the information provided for taking corrective action. Information is the means and action taken on it is the end. In other words, the calculation of variances in standard costing is not an end in itself, but a means to an end. Question 38 (a) Mention the causes that give rise to labour rate variance. Answer (a) Causes for the occurrence of labour rate variance: This variance arises due to the difference between standard labour hour rate specified and the actual labour hour rate paid. It is computed by multiplying the actual hours taken by workers on a job by the difference between the standard and actual wage rate per hour. Main cause which contribute for the occurrence of labour rate variance are as below: (i) Increase in actual wage rate per hour paid to workers. (ii) Use of wrong type of labour i.e. for a job requiring the use of non-skilled labour uses skilled labour. (iii) Since the wages of skilled labour are more than that of non-skilled labour therefore this increased wage rate per hour of skilled labour force accounts for the occurrence of labour rate variance. (iv) Payment of special increments or allowances to workers. (v) Non-anticipated wage increase at the time of setting standards, (vi) Using a gang or mix different from that used for setting labour standard. (vii) Resorting to excessive overtime. Question 39 Describe three distinct groups of variances that arise in standard costing. (May 2000) Answer The three distinct groups of variances that arise in standard costing are: The three distinct groups of variances that arise in standard costing are: 16

(i) Variances of efficiency. These are the variance, which arise due to efficiency or inefficiency in use of material, labour etc. (ii) Variances of prices and rates: These are the variances, which arise due to changes in procurement price and standard price. (iv) Variances due to volume: These represent the effect of difference between actual activity and standard level of activity. These can be summarized as under: (v) Element of cost Material Labour - Variable - Fixed Variance of Efficiency Usage, Mixture, Yield Efficiency, idle time Efficiency Efficiency Variance of price Price Rate of pay Expenditure Expenditure Variance volume Revision -Revision Revision Capacity Calendar of

Question 40 (a) Standard costing variances centre around comparison of actual Performance with the standard and the standards or plans are normally based on the environment anticipated when the targets are set and if the current environment is different from that anticipated, such analysis cannot measure managerial performance. Comment on the statement and how will you deal with the situation with reference to material, labour and sales variances. (Nov 2000) Answer (a) The statement give in the question highlights practical difficulties faced by our industries today. When the current environmental conditions are different from the anticipated environmental conditions (prevailing at the time of setting standard or plans) the use of routine analysis of variance for measuring managerial performance is not desirable / suitable. The variance analysis can be useful for measuring managerial performance if the variances computed are determined on the basis of revised targets / standards based on current actual environmental conditions. In order to deal with the above situation i.e. to measure managerial performance with reference to material, labour and sales variances, it is necessary to proceed and compute the following variances. Material variances: In the case of material purchase price variance, suppose the standard price of raw material determined was Rs.5 per unit, the general market price per unit at the time of purchase was Rs.5.20 and actual price paid per unit was Rs.5.18 on the purchase of say 10,000 units of raw material. In this case the variances to be computed should be: Uncontrollable material purchase price planning variance: = (Standard price p.u. General market price p.u.) Actual quantity purchased = (Rs.5 Rs.5.20) 10,000 units = Rs.2,000 (Adverse) Controllable material purchase price efficiency variance: = (General market price p.u. Actual price paid p.u.) Actual quantity purchased = (Rs.5.20 5.18) 10,000 units = Rs.200 (Fav.) In the case of material usage variance, suppose the standard quantity per unit be 5 kgs, actual production units be 250 and actual quantity of material used is 1,450 kgs. Standard cost of material per kg. was Re.1. Because of shortage of skilled labour it was felt necessary to use unskilled labour and that increased material usage by 20%. The variances to be computed to deal with the current environmental conditions will be: Uncontrollable material usage planning variances: = (Original std. quantity in kgs. Revised std. quantity in kgs.) Standard price per kg. = (1,250 kgs. 1,500 kgs) Re.1 = Rs.250 (Adverse) Controllable material usage efficiency variance: = (Revised standard quantity in kgs. Actual quantity used in kgs.) Standard price per kg. = (1,500 kgs. 1,450 kgs.) Re.1 = Rs.50 (Favourable) 17

Labour variances: Like material variances, here also labour efficiency and wage rate variances should also be adjusted to reflect changes in environmental conditions that prevailed during the period. The labour efficiency variances would be equivalent to the following two variances. (a) Uncontrollable labour efficiency planning variance (b) Controllable labour efficiency variance The above variances would arise when unskilled labour is substituted for skilled labour. Similarly, one uncontrollable and other controllable variance would arise in the case of wage rate variance as well under current environmental conditions. Sales variances: The conventional sales volume variance reports the difference between actual and budgeted sales, priced at the budgeted contribution per unit. The variance merely indicates whether sales volume is greater or less than expected. It does not indicate how well sales management actual sales volume should be compared with an expert estimate that reflects the market conditions prevailing during that period. Total sales margin variance (planning element): = {Experts budgeted sales volume (Experts selling price Standard cost) Original budgeted sales volume (Budgeted selling price Standard cost)} Total sales margin variance (appraisal element): = {Actual sales volume (Actual selling price Standard cost)} = Experts budgeted sales volume (Experts selling price Standard cost)} The figure of Experts budgeted sales volume for a particular product can be determined by estimating the total market sales volume for the period and then multiplying the estimate by the target percentage of market share. Question 41 (a) State the features of Partial plan of Standard Cost Accounting procedure. (May 2001) Answer (a) Features of Partial Plan of Standard Cost Accounting procedure: Standard cost operations can be recorded in the books of account by using partial plan, Features of partial plan of standard costing procedure are as follows: (i) Partial plan system uses current standards in which the inventory will be valued at current standard cost figure. (ii)Under this method WIP account is charged at the actual cost of production for the month and is credited with the standard cost of the months production of finished product. (iii) The closing balance of WIP is also shown at standard cost. The balance after making the credit entries represent the variance from standard for the month. (iv) The analysis of variance is done after the end of the month. Question 42 Overhead variances should be viewed as interdependent rather than independent. Explain. Answer The operations of a firm are so inter linked that the level of performance in one area of operation will affect the performance in other areas. Improvements in one area may lead to improvements in other areas. A sub-standard performance in one area may be compensated by a favourable performance in another area. Because of such interdependency among activities in the firm, the managers should not jump to conclusions merely based on the label of variances namely favourable or unfavourable. They should remember that there is a room for trade off amongst variances. Hence, variances need to be viewed as attention directors rather than problem solvers. Thus, a better picture will be captured when overhead variance are not viewed in isolation but in an integrated manner. Question 43 Under the single plan, record the journal entries giving appropriate narration, with indication of amounts of debits or credits alongside the entries, for the following transactions using the respective control A/c. (i) Material price variance (on purchase of materials) (ii) Material usage variance (on consumption) (iii) Labour rate variance. Answer (i) Dr. Material Control A/c Dr. or Cr. Material Price Variance A/c Cr. Creditors A/c 18

(Being price variance during purchase of materials) (ii) Dr. WIP Control A/c Dr. or Cr. Material Usage Variance A/c Cr. Material Control A/c (Being recording of usage variance at Standard cost of excess/under utilized quantity) (iii) Dr. Wages Control A/c Dr. or Cr. Labour Rate Variance A/c Cr. Cash (Being entry to record wages at standard rate) 5. Pricing Decisions, Pareto Analysis Question 44 Name the pricing policy which aims at high selling price in the beginning of a products, life cycle? (May 1996) Answer Skimming Pricing. Question 45 What is meant by Cost-plus pricing? Answer Cost-plus pricing: It is the most widely used method of pricing a product as it ensures that the selling price is greater than the total cost of a product. This method helps business firms to generate profits and survive in the future. Under cost plus pricing the selling price of the product is determined by adding a percentage of mark-up to the estimated unit cost of the product. The unit cost of the product can be determined by using different methods viz., total cost; manufacturing cost or variable/incremental cost. The percentage of mark-up to be added to estimated cost also very and depends upon the cost figure used. For example, if total cost is used, the mark up will be added to provide an acceptable profit per unit. Alternatively if total manufacturing cost is used, the plus that is added must be sufficient to cover non-manufacturing overheads and to provide an acceptable profit per unit. Question 46 Enumerate the circumstances which are favourable for the adoption of a penetrating pricing policy (May 1999) Answer Penetrating pricing Policy: It means a pricing policy for penetrating mass market as quickly as possible through lower price offers. This method is also used for pricing a new product. In order to popularise a new product penetrating pricing policy is used initially. The company may not earn profit by resorting to this policy during the initial stage. Later on, the price may be increased as and when the demand picks up. Penetrating pricing policy can also be adopted at any stage of the product life cycle for products whose market is approached with low initial price. The use of this policy by the existing concerns will discourage the new concerns to enter the market. The pricing policy is also known as stay-out-pricing. Favourable Circumstances: The three circumstances favourable for resorting to penetrating pricing policy are as under: When demand of the product is elastic to price. In other words, the demand of the product increases when price is low. When there are substantial savings on large scale production. Here increase in demand is sustained by the adoption of low pricing policy. When there is threat of competition, the prices fixed at a low level will act as an entry barrier to the prospective competitors. Question 47 Explain the concept of cost plus pricing. What are its advantages and disadvantages? (May 2000) Answer Cost plus pricing: The most common method of price fixing in a business is to arrive at full cost, add a margin of profit and then set the selling price. During the world wars, the concept of cost plus pricing became very much prevalent, as most of the defence contracts were priced at full cost plus a pre-agreed quantum of profit. In cost plus pricing, the capacity utilisation of the concern has an important bearing and unless the same is considered on a realistic basis the determination of cost would get vitiated. 19

At present, in Government sometimes Tariff Commission, Bureau of Industrial Cost & Prices (BICP) are required to fix prices of certain products and services. They mainly adopt a system of cost plus pricing. Similarly, government has also set up a separate agency to fix prices for pharmaceutical products. The advantages and disadvantages of cost plus pricing are as under: Advantages: (i) It is a fair method and recovery of full costs is assured under it. (ii) It leaves out scope for any uncertainty. (iii) After arriving at full cost, the profit percentage can be flexibly adjusted to take care of market competition. Disadvantages: (i) Covering full cost all the time may ignore the competition. (ii) It can lead to a distorted price fixation unless the cost is determined in a scientific manner. (iii) It ignores the concepts of Marginal Costing, Incremental Costing etc. (iv) It is difficult to predetermine capacity utilization. Question 48 In what circumstances it may be justifiable to sell at a price below marginal cost? (May 2000) Answer It may be justifiable to sell at a price below marginal cost for a limited period under the following circumstances: (i) Where materials are of perishable nature (ii) Where stocks have been accumulated in large quantities and the market prices have fallen. (iii) To popularize a new product (iv) Where such reduction enables the firm to boost the sale of other products having larger profit margin. (v) To capture foreign markets (vi) To obviate shut down costs (vii) To retain future market Question 49 Describe two pricing practices in which non-cost reasons are important, when setting prices. (Nov 2000) Answer Two pricing practices in which non-cost reasons are important when setting price are: (i) Price discrimination and (ii) Peak load pricing. (i) Price discrimination: This is the practice of charging to some customers a higher price than that charged to other customers e.g. Airlines tickets for business travellers and LTC travellers are priced differently. (ii) Peak load pricing: This pricing system is based on capacity constraints. Under this pricing system a higher price for the same service or product is demanded when it approaches physical capacity limits e.g. telephones, tele-communication, hotel, car rental and electric utility industries are charged higher price at their peak load. Question 50 What is Penetration pricing? What are the circumstances in which this policy can be adopted? (May 2001) Answer Penetration pricing: This pricing policy is in favour of using a low price as the principal instrument for penetrating mass markets early. It is opposite to skimming pricing. The low pricing policy is introduced for the sake of long-term survival and profitability and hence it has to receive careful consideration before implementation. It needs an analysis of the scope for market expansion and hence considerable amount of research and forecasting are necessary before determining the price. Penetration pricing means a price suitable for penetrating mass market as quickly as possible through lower price offers. This method is also used for pricing a new product. In order to popularize a new product penetrating pricing policy is used initially. The company may not earn profit by resorting to this policy during the initial stage. Later on, the price may be increased as and when the demand picks up. Penetrating pricing policy can also be adopted at any stage of the product life cycle for products whose market is approached with low initial price. The use of this policy by the existing concerns will discourage the new concerns to enter the market. This pricing policy is also known as stay-out-pricing. Circumstances for adoption: The three circumstances in which penetrating pricing policy can be adopted are as under: 20

(i) When demand of the product is elastic to price. In other words, the demand of the product increases when price is low. (ii) When there are substantial savings on large-scale production, here increase in demand is sustained by the adoption of low pricing policy. (iii) When there is threat of competition. The prices fixed at a low level act as an entry barrier to the prospective competitions. Question 51 Explain Skimming pricing strategy. (4 Marks) Answer Skimming pricing It is a policy where the prices are kept high during the early period of a products existence. This can be synchronised with high promotional expenditure and in the latter years the prices can be gradually reduced. The reasons for following such a policy are as follows: (1) The demand is likely to be inelastic in the earlier stages till the product is established in the market. (2) The gradual reduction in price in the latter years will tend to increase the sales. (3) This method is preferred in the beginning because in the initial periods when the demand for the product is not known the price covers the initial cost of production. (4) High initial capital outlays needed for manufacture, results in high cost of production. In addition to this, the producer has to incur huge promotional activities resulting in increased costs. High initial prices will be able to finance the cost of production particularly when uncertainties block the usual sources of capital. Question 52 How Pareto analysis is helpful in pricing of product in the case of firm dealing with multiproducts? Answer In the case of firm dealing with multi products, it would not be possible for it to analyse price-volume relationship for all of them. Pareto Analysis is used for analysing the firms estimated sales revenue from various products and it might indicate that approximately 80% of its total sales revenue is earned from about 20% of its products. Such analysis helps the top management to delegate the pricing decision for approximately 80% of its product to the lower level of management, thus freeing them to concentrate on the pricing decisions for products approximately 20% of which is essential for the companys survival. Thus, a firm can adopt more sophisticated pricing methods for small proportion of products that jointly account for 80% of total sales revenue. For the remaining 80% products, which account for 20% of the total sales value the firm may use cost based pricing method. Question 53 Outline the features of penetration pricing strategy Answer (i) Penetration Pricing: It is a policy of using a low price as the principal instrument for penetrating mass markets early. (ii) This method is used for pricing a new product and to popularize it initially. (iii) Profits may not be earned in the initial stages. However, prices may be increased as and when the product is established and its demand picks up. (iv) The low price policy is introduced for the sake of long term survival and profitability and hence it has to receive careful consideration before implementation. It needs an analysis of the scope for market expansion and hence considerable amount of research and forecasting are necessary before determining the price. (v) The circumstances in which penetrating pricing can be adopted are: Elastic demand: The demand of the product is high when price is low. Hence, lower prices mean large volumes and hence more profits. Mass Production: When there are substantial savings in large-scale production, increase in demand is sustained by the adoption of low pricing policy. Frighten off competition: The prices fixed at a low-level acts as an entry barrier to the prospective competitors. The use of this policy by existing concerns will discourage the new concerns to enter the market. This pricing policy is also known as stay-out-pricing.

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6. Transfer Pricing Question 54 In transfer pricing what is common conflict between a division and the company as a whole. (May 1997) Answer Usually a conflict between a division of the company and the company as a whole is faced by the management of decentralized units when products or services are exchanged among different divisions of the company. Such a conflict becomes more significant in the case of those concerns where profitability is used as a criteria for evaluating the performance of each division. The essence of decentralisation is reflected in the freedom to make decisions. Under such set up it is expected that the top management should not interfere with the decision making process of its subordinates heading different units. In other words, management of decentralized units is given autonomy with regard to decision-making. In this system top management is expected to preserve autonomy in decision making. The management of such companies also expects that each division should not only achieve its own objective necessary for evaluating the performance but should also achieve the objective of goal congruence. A divisional head in a company under aforesaid set up is free to use a price as a transfer price for goods and services, which may provide incentive. Such a transfer price may fail to achieve the objective of Goal congruence (which means a perfect congruence between divisions goal and the goal of the company). In case of failure of a division to achieve the objective of goal congruence the management of the company may dictate their transfer price. Such an interference of management of the company is usually the main basis of conflict between a division and the company as a whole. Further this conflict is aggravated if the management advocates the transfer of goods and services at cost. As such the transfer price will not reflect a good: picture about the performance of the transferring division. The profitability of the transferring division will not be known by the use of such a transfer price. Each division appreciates the transfer of its goods/services at usual selling price/market price so as to arrive at the correct return/profitability figure, used for measuring the performance. There is no incentive to the transferring division if goods and services are transferred at variable cost. Question 55 Enumerate and briefly explain any three methods of determining transfer price. (May 1998) Answer Transfer price Transfer price is the price at which goods or services are transferred from one unit of a concern to the other. Various methods of pricing used for the purpose have been enumerated as below: 1. At cost or variants of cost e.g., actual manufacturing cost; standard cost; full cost and full cost plus. 2. At market price 3. At bargained or negotiated price:
Pricing at cost: (a) Actual manufacturing cost: According to this method goods or services are transferred at their actual cost of production. It is a simple and useful method for units where responsibility of profit performance is centralized. (b) Standard cost: Transfers of goods and services takes place at their standard cost. Variances if arise are usually absorbed by the supplying unit but sometime they may be transferred to the user unit as well. (c) Fill Cost: It means the sum total of expenses viz., cost of production, selling and distribution, administration, research and development which is used as a transfer price. The use of this method does not permit the internal unit to earn profit by transferring goods and services internally, but permits them to do so while dealing with outsiders. (d) Full Cost Plus: The supplying unit transfers goods and services at full cost plus (some mark-up). The mark-up added to full cost is either expressed as a percentage of full cost or of capital employed. Selling expenses here are recovered by the supplying unit without incurring them, specially when the goods / services are transferred internally. Due to this defect the use of this method is not appreciated by the internal receiving units. Market price method: Under this method the transfer prices of goods / sales transferred to other units/divisions are based on market prices. In a competitive market goods/services cannot be transferred to its users at a higher price. Such a competitive 22

market provides an incentive to efficient production. The man limitations of this method are: (i) Difficulty in obtaining just market prices. (ii) Difficulty in determining the elements of selling and distribution expenses such as commission, discounts, advertisement and sales promotion etc., so that necessary adjustment may be made in the market price to provide benefit of these expenses to the profit centre, receiving the goods. Bargained / Negotiated prices method: Each decentralized unit is treated as an independent unit and such units decide the transfer price by bargaining or negotiations. Divisional mangers have full freedom to purchase their requirement from outside if the prices quoted by their sister unit are not acceptable to them. A system of negotiated prices develops business like attitude amongst divisions of the company. The buying division may be tempted to purchase from outside sources if the outside prices are lower than the internal divisions price. IN order to avoid any reduction in overall profits of the company, the top management may impose restrictions on the external purchase / sale of goods. Question 56 Transfer pricing is a widely debated and contested topic Discuss, (Nov 1999) Answer Usually a conflict between a division of the company and the company as a whole is faced by the management of decentralized units when products or services are exchanged among different divisions of the company. Such a conflict becomes more significant in the case of those concerns where profitability is used as criteria for evaluating the performance of each division. The essence of decentralization is reflected in the freedom to make decisions. Under such a set up it is expected. That the top management should not interfere with the decision making process of its subordinates beading different units. In other words, management of decentralized units is given autonomy with regard to decision-making. In this system top management is expected to preserve autonomy in decision making. The management of such companies also expects that each division should not only achieve its own objective necessary for evaluating the performance but should also achieve the objective of goal congruence. A divisional head in a company under aforesaid set up is free to use a price as a transfer price for goods and services, which may provide incentive. Such a transfer price may fail to achieve the objective of Goal congruence (which means a perfect congruence between divisions goal and the goal of the company. In case of failure of a division to achieve the objective of Goal congruence the management of the company may dictate their transfer price. Such a interference of management of the company is usually the main basis of conflict between a division and the company as a whole. Further this conflict is aggravated if the management advocates the transfer of goods and services at cost. As such, the transfer price will not reflect a good picture about the performance of the transferring division. The profitability of the transferring division will not be known by the use of such a transfer price. Each division appreciates the transfer of its goods/services at usual selling price/market price so as to arrive at the correct return / profitability figure, used for measuring the performance. There is no incentive to the transferring division if goods and services are transferred at variable cost. Question 57 What should be the basis of transfer pricing, if unit variable cost and unit selling price are not constant? (Nov 1999) Answer If unit variable cost and unit selling price were not constant then the main problem that would arise while fixing the transfer price of a product would be as follows: There is an optimum level of output for a firm as a whole. This is so because there is a certain level of output beyond which its net revenue will not rise. The ideal transfer price under these circumstances will be that which will motivate these managers to produce at this level of output. Essentially, it means that some division in a business house might have to produce its output at a level less than its full capacity and in all such cases a transfer price may be imposed centrally. Question 58 Indicate the possible disadvantages of treating divisions as profit centres. (Nov 2001) Answer The Possible disadvantages of treating divisions as profit centres are as follows: 1. Divisions may compete with each other and may take decisions to increase profits at the expense of other divisions thereby overemphasizing short term results. 23

2. It may adversely affect co-operation between the divisions and lead to lack of harmony in achieving organizational goals of the company. Thus it is hard to achieve the objective of goal congruence. 3. It may lead to reduction I the companys overall total profits. 4. The cost of activities, which are common to all divisions, may be greater for decentralized structure than centralized structure. It may thus result in duplication of staff activities. 5. Top management looses control by delegating decision making to divisional managers. There are risks of mistakes committed by the divisional managers, which the top management, may avoid. 6. Series of control reports prepared for several departments may not be effective from the point of view of top management. 7. It may under utilize corporate competence. 8. It leads to complications associated with transfer pricing problems. 9. It becomes difficult to identity and defines precisely suitable profit centres. 10. It confuses divisions results with managers performance. Question 59 What are some goals of a transfer-pricing system in an organization? Answer The goals of transfer pricing are that it should: 1. provide information that motivates divisional managers to take good economic decisions which will improve the divisional profits and ultimately the profits of the company as a whole. 2. provide information which will be useful for evaluating the divisional performance. 3. seek to achieve goal congruence. 4. ensure that divisional autonomy is not undermined.

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7. Target Costing, Life Cycle Costing

Question 60 What is Target Costing and what are the stages to the methodology ? (Nov 2000) Answer Target Costing: It is a management tool used for reducing a product cost over its entire life cycle. It is driven by external Market factors. Marketing management prior to designing and introducing a new product determines a target market price. This target price is set at a level that will permit the company to achieve a desired market share and sales volume. A desired profit margin is then deducted to determine the target maximum allowable product cost. Target costing also develops methods for achieving those targets and means to test the cost effectiveness of different cost-cutting scenarios. Stages to the methodology. 1. Conception (planning) Phase: Under this stage of life cycle, competitors products are to be analysed, with regard to price, quality, service and support, delivery and technology. The features which consumers would like to have like consumer value etc. established. After preliminary testing, the company may be asked to pinpoint a market niche, it believes, is under supplied and which might have some competitive advantage. 2. Development phase: The design department should select the most competitive product in the market and study in detail the requirement of material, manufacturing process along with competitors cost structure. The firm should also develop estimates of internal cost structure based on internal cost of similar products being produced by the company. If possible the company should develop both the cost structures (competitors and own) in terms of cost drivers for better analysis and cost reduction. 3. Production phase: This phase concentrates its search for better and less expensive products, cost benefit analysis in different features of a product priority wise, more towards less expensive means of production, as well as production techniques etc. Question 61 What is Product Life-cycle Costing ? Describe its characteristics and benefits.(5 Marks)Answer Product life cycle costing. It is an approach used to provide a long-term picture of product line profitability, feedback on the effectiveness of the life cycle planning and cost data to clarify the economic impact on alternatives choices in the design, engineering phase etc. It is also considered as a way to enhance the control of manufacturing costs. It is important to track and measure costs during each stage of a products life cycle. Characteristics:(i) Product life cycle costing involves tracing of costs and revenues of each product over the several calendar periods throughout their entire life cycle. (ii) Product life cycle costing traces research and design and development costs and total magnitude of these costs for each individual product and compared with product revenue. (iii) Report generation for costs and revenues. Benefits: (i) The product life cycle costing results in earlier actions to generate revenue or to lower cost than otherwise might be considered. (ii) Better decision should follow from a more accurate and realistic assessment of revenues and costs, at least within a particular life cycle stage. (iii) Product life cycle thinking can promote long-term rewarding in contrast to short-term profitability rewarding. (iv) It provides an overall framework for considering total incremental costs over the life span of a product. Question62 What is total-life-cycle costing approach? What is it important? Answer Total life cycle costing approach: Life cycle costing estimates, tracks and accumulates the costs over a products entire life cycle from its inception to abandonment or from the initial R & D stage till the final customer servicing and support of the product. It aims at tracing of costs and revenues on product by product basis over several calendar periods throughout their life cycle. Costs are incurred along the products life cycle starting from products design, development, manufacture, marketing, servicing and final disposal. The objective is to accumulate all the costs over a product life cycle to determine whether the profits earned during the manufacturing phase will cover the costs incurred during the pre and post manufacturing stages of product life cycle. 25

Importance: Product life cycle costing is important for the following reasons: (i) When non-production costs like costs associated with R & D, design, marketing, distribution and customer service are significant, it is essential to identify them for target pricing, value engineering and cost management. For example, a poorly designed software package may involve higher costs on marketing, distribution and after sales service. (ii) There may be instances where the pre-manufacturing costs like R & D and design are expected to constitute a sizeable portion of life cycle costs. When a high percentage of total life cycle costs are likely to be so incurred before the commencement of production, the firm needs an accurate prediction of costs and revenues during the manufacturing stage to decide whether the costly R & D and design activities should be undertaken. (iii) Many costs are locked in at R & D and design stages. Locked in or Committed costs are those costs that have not been incurred at the initial stages of R & D and design but that will be incurred in the future on the basis of the decisions that have already been taken. For example, the adoption of a certain design will determine the products material and labour inputs to be incurred during the manufacturing stage. A complicated design may lead to greater expenditure on material and labour costs every time the product is produced. Life cycle budgeting highlights costs throughout the product life cycle and facilitates value engineering at the design stage before costs are locked in. Total life-cycle costing approach accumulates product costs over the value chain. It is a process of managing all costs along the value chain starting from products design, development, manufacturing, marketing, service and finally disposal. Question 63 List the steps involved in target costing process with the help of a block diagram. Answer Target Costing Process
Set target selling price based on customer expectations and Establish profit margin based sales forecast on long-term profit objectives and projected volumes Determine target (or allowable) cost per unit Compare with (target selling price less Establish cost reduction targets for each component and production activity, using value Estimate the current cost of new product

8. Just in time Approach, Material Requirement Planning and Enterprise Resource Planning
Question 64 What do you mean by Back flushing in JIT system ? Explain briefly the problems with back flushing that must be corrected before it will work properly. (4 Marks) Answer Back flushing in a JIT system Traditional accounting systems record the flow of inventory through elaborate accounting procedures . Such systems are required in those manufacturing environment where inventory/WIP values are large. However, since JIT systems operate in modern manufacturing environment characterized by low inventory and WIP values, usually also associated with low cost variances, the requirements of such elaborate accounting procedures does not exist. Back flushing requires no data entry of any kind until a finished product is completed. At that time the total amount finished is entered into the computer system which is multiplied by all components as per the Bill of materials (BOM) for each item produced. This yields a lengthy list of components that should have been used in the production process and this is subtracted from the opening stock to arrive at the closing stock to arrive at the closing stock/inventory. The problems with back flushing that must be corrected before it works properly are: (i) The total production quantity entered into the system must be absolutely correct, if not, then wrong components and quantities will be subtracted from the stock. 26

engineering and value analysis

(ii) All abnormal scrap must be diligently tracked and recorded. Otherwise materials will fall outside the black flushing system and will not be charged to inventory. (iii) Lot tracing is impossible under the back flushing system. This is required when a manufacturer needs to keep records of which production lots were used to create a product in case all the items in a lot need be recalled. (iv) The inventory balance may be too high at all times because the back flushing transactions that relieves inventory usually does so only once a day, during which time other inventory is sent to the production process. This makes it difficult to maintain an accurate set of inventory records in the warehouse. Question 65 (i) What do you mean by ERP? (ii) Name six benefits of ERP in an enterprise Answer (i) Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software (i) attempts to integrate all departments and functions across a company into a single computer system that can serve all those different departments particular needs. In fact ERP combines all computerized departments together with the help of a single integrated software that runs off a single database so that various departments can more easily share information and communicate with each other (ii) Benefits of ERP (a)Product costing. (b) Inventory management. (c)Distribution and delivery of pdts. (d) E-commerce. (e)Automatic control of quality. (f) Sales service. (g) Improved production planning. (h) Quick response to change in market condition. (i) Competitive edge by improving business process.

9. Activity Based Cost Management

Question 66 Explain the concept of cost drivers indicate what you will consider as cost drivers for the following business function: Research & development; and Customer service. (Nov 1998) Answer A cost driver is any factor whose change cases a change in the total cost of a related cost object. In other words, a change in the level of cost driver will cause a change in the level of the total cost a related cost object. The cost drivers fro business functions viz. Research & Development and Customer Service are as below: Business Functions: Cost drivers Research & Development Number of research projects Personal hours on a project Technical complexities of projects Customer Service Number of service calls Number of products serviced Hours spent on servicing products Question 67 What is activity based costing? (May 2000) Answer Activity based costing: It focuses on activities as the fundamental cost objects and uses the costs of these activities as building blocks for compiling the costs of other objects. According to CIMA, it is defined as Cost attribution to cost units on the basis of benefits received from indirect activities i.e. ordering, setting-up, assuring quality etc. Under activity based costing costs are accumulated for each activity as a separate cost object. The collected costs are applied to products based on the benefits received from various activities. The final product costs are built up from the costs of the specific activities undergone. In the first stage the activity driven overhead cost is charged to activity based cost pools and in the second stage cost driver based rates are derived to charge cost to product lines. The cost driver based rates are based on activities. Activities based costing can be used for: (a) Pricing of products; 27

(b) Design and development of new products. Question 68 What are the areas in which activity based information is used for decision making? (Nov 2000) Answer The areas in which Activity based information is used for making are as under: (i) Pricing (ii) Market segmentation and distribution channels (iii) Make-or-buy decisions and outsourcing (iv) Transfer pricing (v) Plant closed down decisions (vi) Evaluation of offshore production (vii) Capital Investment decisions (viii) Product line profitability. Question 69 Explain the concept of activity based costing. How ABC system supports corporate strategy? Answer ABC is an accounting methodology that assigns costs to activities rather than products and services. This enables resources and overhead costs to be more accurately assigned to products and services that consume them when compared to traditional methods where either labour or machine hrs are considered as absorption basis over cost centres. In order to correctly associate costs with products and services, ABC assigns cost to activities based on their resources . It then assigns cost to Cost objects, such as products and customers, based on their use of activities. ABC can track the flow of activities in organization by creating a link between the activity and the cost objects. ABC supports corporate strategy in many ways such as: ABC system can effectively support the management by furnishing data, at the operational level and strategic level. Accurate product costing will help the management to compare the profits of various customers, product lines and to decide on price strategy etc. Information generated by ABC system can also encourage management to redesign the products. ABC system can change the method of evaluation of new process technologies, to reduce setup times, rationalization of plant lay out in order to reduce or lower material handling cost, improve quality etc. ABC system will report on the resource spending. ABC analysis helps managers focus their attention and energy on improving activities and the actions allow the insights from ABC to be translated into increased profits. Performance base accurate feedback can be provided to cost centre managers. Accurate information on product costs enables better decisions to be made on pricing, marketing, product design and product mix. Question 70 Why are conventional product costing systems more likely to distort product costs in highly automated plants? How do activity-based costing systems deal with such a situation? Answer The conventional product cost system was in vogue when companies manufactured narrow range of products, overhead costs were relatively small and distortions arising from inappropriate overhead allocations were not significant. It used volume measures like direct labour hours or machine hours for charging overhead costs to products. In the case of a company using highly automated plant, direct labour is a small fraction of cost when compared with overheads (because of higher amount of depreciation). In case where such a company is multi product, overheads which are large in proportion to direct labour are influenced by number of set up, inspection, number of purchases etc. In these circumstances, the volume based method of recovery of overheads is no longer appropriate and such a measure will report inaccurate product costs. Hence, the traditional system of costing was found to over cost high volume products and under cost low volume products. Activity Based Costing (ABC) system aims at refining the costing system used in automated plants in the following manner: 1. ABC systems trace more costs as direct costs. 2. ABC systems create homogeneous cost pools linked to different activities. 3. For each activity cost pool, ABC systems seek a cost allocation base that has a causeand-effect relationship with costs in the cost pool. 28

Question 71 Differentiate between Value-added and Non-value-added activities in the context of Activity-based costing. Give examples of Value-added and Non-value-added activities. Answer A value added activity is an activity that customers perceive as adding usefulness to the product or service they purchase. In other words, it is an activity that, if eliminated, will reduce the actual utility or usefulness which customers obtain from using the product or service. For example, painting a car in a company manufacturing cars or a computer manufacturing company making computers with preloaded software. A non-value added activity is an activity where there is an opportunity of cost reduction without reducing the products service potential to the customer. In other words, it is an activity that, if eliminated, will not reduce the actual or perceived value that customers obtain by using the product or service. For example, storage and moving of raw materials, reworking or repairing of products, etc. Value-added activities enhance the value of products and services in the eyes of the organisations customers while meeting its own goals. Non-value added activities on the other hand do not contribute to customer-perceived value. Question 72 Give two examples for each of the following categories in activity based costing: (i) Unit level activities (ii) Batch level activities (iii) Product level activities (iv) Facility level activities. Answer Examples: (i) Unit level activities (i) Use of indirect materials (ii) Inspection or testing of every item produced or say every 100th item produced (iii) Indirect consumables (ii) Batch level activities (i) Material ordering (ii) Machine set up costs (iii) Inspection of products like first item of every batch (iii) Product level (i) Designing the product (ii) Producing parts to a certain specification (iii) Advertising costs, if advertisement is for individual products (iv) Facility level (i) Maintenance of buildings (ii) Plant security (iii) Production managers salaries (iv) Advertising campaigns promoting the company

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10. Total Quality Management (TQM)

Question 73 Define Total Quality Management? What are the six Cs for successful implementation of TQM? Answer The total quality management is a set of concepts and tools for getting all employees focused on continuous improvement in the eyes of the customer. Quality is an important aspect of world-class manufacturing. The success of Japanese companies is grass rooted in their long-term commitment to improvement of quality. A world class manufacturing approach demands that the quality must be designed into product and the production process, rather than an attempt to remove poor quality by inspection. This means that the objectives of quality assurance in a world- class-manufacturing environment, is not just reject defective product, but to systematically investigate the cause of defects so that they can be gradually eliminated. Though the goal is zero defect, the methodology is one of continuous improvement. Six Cs of TQM (i) Commitment - If a TQM culture is to be developed, so that quality improvement becomes normal part of everyone's job, a clear commitment, from the top must be provided. Without this all else fails. (ii) Culture - Training lies at the centre of effecting a change -in culture and attitudes. Negative perceptions must be changed to encourage individual contributions. (iii) Continuous improvement - TQM is a process, not a program, necessitating that we are committed in the long term to the never ending search for ways to do the job better. (iv) Co-operation: The on-the-job experience of all employees must be fully utilized and their involvement and co-operation sought in the development of improvement strategies and associated performance measures. (v) Customer focus: Perfect service with zero defects in all that is acceptable at either internal or external levels. (vi) Control: Documentation, procedures and awareness of current best practice are essential if TQM implementations are to function appropriately The need for control mechanisms is frequently overlooked, in practice.

11. Value Chain Analysis

Question 74 What steps are involved in value chain analysis approach for assessing competitive advantages? Answer Most corporations define their mission as one of creating products and services. In contrast, the other companies are acutely aware of the strategic importance of individual activities within their value chain, They are concentrating on those activities that allow them to capture maximum value for their customers and themselves. These firms use the value chain analysis approach to better understand which segments, distribution channels, price points. product differentiation. selling prepositions and value chain configuration will yield them the greatest competitive advantage. The way the value chain approach helps these organizations to assess competitive advantage includes the use of following steps of analysis. (i) Internal cost analysis - to determine the sources of profitability and the relative cost positions of internal value creating processes; (ii) Internal differentiation analysis - to understand the sources of differentiation with internal value-creating process; and (iii) Vertical linkage analysis - to understand the relationships and associated costs among external suppliers and customers in order to maximize the value delivered to customers and to minimize the cost. The value chain approach used for assessing competitive advantages is an integral part of the strategic planning process. Like strategic planning, value chain analysis is a continuous process of gathering, evaluating and communicating information for business decision-making. Question 75 What is the concept of Value-chain and why is it important for Cost Management? Answer Value chain is the linked set of value creating activities from the basic raw materials and components sources to the ultimate end use of the product or service delivered to the customer. The six business functions contained in the value chain are (i) Research and Development, (ii) Design (iii) Production (iv) Marketing (v) Distribution and (vi) Customer service. 30

The objective of value chain is to serve as means of increasing the customer satisfaction and managing costs effectively. Coordination of the individual parts of the value chain activities creates conditions to improve customer satisfaction in terms of cost efficiency, quality and delivery. A firm which performs value chain activities more efficiently and at a lower cost than its competitors will be able to gain competitive advantage. The following methodology should be adopted. 1. The firm should identify the industry value chain and then assign costs, revenues and assets to value activities. 2. Diagnose the cost drivers regulating each value activity. 3. Develop sustainable cost advantage either by controlling cost drivers better than competitors or by reconfiguring the chain value. By analyzing costs, revenues and assets in each activity systematically a company can achieve low cost. Thus value chain helps managers in deciding how to apply the organizations valuable physical and human resources to each linked process so as to achieve cost effectiveness. Question 76 Explain with a diagram the value chain activities within the firm with suitable classifications under primary and support activities and also the industry value chain indicating what the end use consumer pays for. Answer Industry Value Chain Value Chain Activities within the firm Primary Activities Support Activities
Supplie r value Firm Z chain value chain Distrib ution value chain Buyer value chain

End use consumer pays for profit margin throughout

ROD

Proc ure men t Technolo gy Develop ment

Design

Produc tion

Market ing

Human Resource Managem ent

Dispos al Recycl e value chain

Distrib u tion

Firm infrastruc ture

Service

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12. Budgetary Control and Performance Measurement

Question 77 (a) What are the advantages and limitations of Zero base Budgeting ? (4 Marks) (b) What are benchmarking code of conduct ? (3 Marks) (c) Explain briefly the main features of ERP. (4 Marks) Answer (a) Advantage of ZBB (i) It provides a systematic approach for evaluation of different activities and ranks them in order of preference for allocation of scare resource. (ii)It ensures that the various functions undertaken by the organisation are critical for the achievement of its objectives and are being performed in the best way. (iii) It provides an opportunity to the management to allocate resources for various activities only after having a thorough cost-benefit analysis. (iv) The area of wasteful expenditure can be easily identified and eliminated. (v)Departmental budgets are closely linked with corporate objectives. (vi) The technique can also be used for the introduction and implementation of the system of management by objective. Limitations of ZBB (i) Various operational problems are likely to be faced in implementing the technique. (ii)The full support of top management is required. (iii) It is time consuming as well as costly. (iv) It requires proper trained managerial staff. (b) Benchmarking code of conduct Bench marking is the process of identifying and learning from the best practices anywhere in the world. It is a powerful tool for continuous improvement. To contribute to efficient, effective and ethical bench marking, individuals agree for themselves and their organisation to be abided by the following principles for the benchmarking with other organisations. Suggested benchmarking code of conduct: (i) Principle of legality (ii)Principle of exchange (iii) Principle of confidentiality (iv) Principle of use (v)Principle of first party contact (vi) Principle of third party contact (vii) Principle of preparation (c) Features of ERP It facilitates company wide integrated information systems covering all functional areas like manufacturing, purchase, payables, inventory etc. It performs core activities and increases customer services thereby projecting and enhancing the corporate image. It bridges the information gap across organisations. It offers a solution to better project management. It allows automatic introduction of the latest technologies like Electronic Fund Transfer, Internet, Video Conferencing etc. It eliminates business problems like shortage of material, inventory problems etc. It provides for improving and refining the business process. It provides complete integration of systems, not only across departments, but also across the companies under same management. Question 78 Balanced score card and performance measurement system endeavours to create a blend of strategic measures, outcomes and drive measures and internal and external measures. Discuss the statement and explain the major components of a balanced score card. Answer The balanced score card translates an organization's mission and strategy into a comprehensive set of performance measures that provides the framework for implementing its strategy. The balanced score card does not focus solely on achieving financial objectives. It is an approach, which provides information to management to assist in strategic policy formulation and achievement. It emphasizes the need to provide the user with a set of information, which addresses all relevant areas of performance in an objective and unbiased manner. As a management tool it helps companies to assess 32

overall performance, improve operational processes and enables management to develop better plans for improvements. Major components of a balanced scorecard - The components of balanced score cards varies form business to business. A well designed balanced scorecard combines financial measures of post performance with measures of firm's drivers of future performance. The specific objectives and measures of an organization-balanced scorecard can be derived from the firm's vision and strategy. Generally, balanced score card has the following four perspectives from which a company's activity can be evaluated. (i) Financial perspective: Financial perspective measures the results that the organization delivers to its stakeholders. The measures are: operating income, revenue growth, revenues from new products, gross margin percentage, cost reduction in key areas, economic value added, return on investment. (ii) Customer perspective: The customer perspective considers the business through the eyes of customers, measuring and rejecting upon customer satisfaction. The measures are: - market share. customer satisfaction, customer retention percentage, time taken to fulfil customer's requests. (iii) Internal business perspective: The internal perspective focuses attention on the performance of the key internal processes, which drive the business such as innovative process, operation process and post-sales services. (iv) Learning & growth perspective: The measure are:- employee education & skills levels, employee turnover ratio, information system availability, percentage of employee suggestion implemented etc. Question 6 Because a single budget system is normally used to serve several purposes, there is a danger that they may conflict with each other. Do you agree? Discuss. Answer A single budget system may be conflicting in planning and motivation, and planning and performance evaluation roles as below: (i) Planning and motivation roles Demanding budgets that may not be achieved may be appropriate to motivate maximum performance but they are unsuitable for planning purposes. For these, a budget should be a set based on easier targets that are expected to be met. (ii) Planning and performance evaluation roles - For planning purposes budgets are set in advance of the budget period based on an anticipated set of circumstances or environment. Performance evaluation should be based on a comparison of active performance with an adjusted budget to reflect the circumstance under which managers actually operated. Question 79 What are the elements of a Balanced Score card? Also explain how it can be used as a Financial Planning model. Answer The elements of a balanced score card are: (i) Financial perspective (ii) Customer perspective (iii) Internal business process perspective (iv) Learning and growth perspective. The objective of the balanced score card is to provide a comprehensive framework for translating the companys strategic objectives into a coherent set of performance measures. It emphasizes the use of financial and non-financial measures as part of the programme to achieve future financial performance. It helps in planning, setting targets and aligning strategic initiatives. To evaluate the success of the implementation of the strategy, the company can assess the change in the operating income by comparing the targeted operating income with the actual operating income. The change in the operating income may arise due to growth factor, change in the price of inputs and outputs and productivity factor. The company is said to be successful in implementation of strategy only if the change in the operating income closely aligns with that strategy.

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13. Linear Programming

Question 80 Write short notes on applications and limitation of Linear Programming Techniques. (Nov 2000) Answer Application of Liner Programming: Linear programming was developed from 1947 onwards as a tool for finding optimal solutions to military planning problems. The early applications were restricted to problems involving military operations such as logistics, transportation and procurement, successful military applications led to business uses. Present day users range from agriculture, business and industry to government with the most extensive applications being those in industry and commerce. For example, problems involving blending of petroleum, animal feed blending, production planning and inventory control, problems determining optimal product mix, problems dealing with training and assignment of personnel, transport of commodities and allocation of funds are some of the areas of business applications of linear programming. Limitations of Linear Programming: Important limitations of linear programming problems are as follows: (a) A primary requirement of linear programming is that the objective function and every constraint function must be linear. This requires that the measure of effectiveness and resource usage must be proportional to the level of each activity conducted individually. However, programming problems which are non-linear arise quite frequently. It is occasionally possible to reformulate a non-linear programming problem into the linear programming format so that the simplex method can be used. This, however, is the fortunate exception rather than the rule. (b) It may not be possible to solve those problems using linear programming in which nonlinearity arises because of joint interactions between some of the activities regarding the total measure of effectiveness or total usage of some resource. Hence, linear programming problem requires that the total measure of effectiveness and total resource usage resulting from the joint performance of the activities must equal the respective sums of these quantities resulting from each activity being performed individually. In some situations, it may not be true. For example, consider a situation where a byproduct is produced with the scrap material from two primary products. The material would still have to be produced it only one of the two products were produced. However, the total material requirements if both products are produced is less than the sum of requirements if each were produced individually. It may not be possible to handle such situations with linear programming problems. (c) In linear programming problem, fractional values are permitted for the decision variables. However, many decision problems require that the solution for decision variables should be obtained in non-fractional values. Rounding-off the values obtained by linear programming techniques may not result into an optimal solution in such cases. (d) In linear programming problems, coefficients in the objective function and the constraint equations must be completely known and they should not change during the period of study i.e. they should be known constraints. In practical situation, it may not be possible to state all coefficients in the objective function and constraints with certainty. Furthermore, these coefficients may actually be random variables, each with an underlying probability distribution for the values. Such problems cannot be solved suing linear programming. Question 81 Write short notes on the characteristics of the dual problem. (Nov 1996) Answer Characteristics of the dual problem: 1. For any linear programming model called primal model, there exists a companion model called the dual model. 2. The number of constraints in the primal model equals the number of variables in the dual model. 3. The number of variables in the primal problem equals the number of constraints in the dual model. 4. If the primal model is a maximization problem then the dual model will be of the form less than or equal to, while the restrictions in the dual problem will be of the formgreater than or equal to, . 5. The solution of the prima; model yields the solution of the dual model. Also, an optimal simplex table for the dual model yields the optimal solution to the primal model. Further, the objective functions of the two optimal tables will have identical values. 6. Dual of the primas dual problem is the primal problem itself. 34

7. Feasible solutions to a primal and dual problem are both optimal if the complementary slackness conditions hold, that is, (value of a primal variable) x (value of the corresponding dual surplus variable) = 0 or (value of a primal slack variable) x (value of the corresponding dual variable) = 0. If this relationship does not hold, than either the primal solution or the dual solution or both are no optimal. 8. If the primal problem has no optimal solution because of infeasibility, then the dual problem will have no optimal solution because of unboundedness. 9. If the primal has no optimal solution because of unboundedness, then the dual will have no optimal solution because of infeasibility.

35

14. Critical Path Analysis & PERT

Question 82 Write short notes on Distinction between PERT and CPM. (Nov 2000) Answer Distinction between PERT and CPM: The PERT and CPM models are similar in terms of their basic structure, rationale and mode of analysis. However, there are certain distinctions between PERT and CPM networks which are enumerated below: (1) CPM is activity oriented i.e. CPM network is built on the basis of activities. Also results of various calculations are considered in terms of activities of the project. On the other hand, PERT is even oriented. (2) CPM is a deterministic model i.e. it does not take into account the uncertainties involved in the estimation of time for execution of a job or an activity. It completely ignores the probabilistic element of the problem. PERT, however, is a probabilistic model. It uses three estimates of the activity time; optimistic, pessimistic and most likely, with a view to take into account time uncertainty. Thus, the expected duration for each activity is probabilistic and expected duration indicates that there is fifty per probability of getting the job done within that time. (3) CPM laces dual emphasis on time and cost and evaluates the trade-off between project cost and project item. By deploying additional resources, it allows the critical path project manager to manipulate project duration within certain limits so that project duration can be shortened at an optimal cost. On the other hand, PERT is primarily concerned with time. It helps the manger to schedule and coordinate various activities so that the project can be completed on scheduled time. (4) CPM is commonly used for those projects which are repetitive in nature and where one has prior experience of handling similar projects. PERT is generally used for those projects where time required to complete various activities are not known as prior. Thus, PERT is widely used for planning and scheduling research and development project. Question 83 Define a project and briefly explain the four common implications which characterize a project, and state the five steps of the working methodology of critical path analysis. (May 1997) Answer A project can be defined as a set of activities or jobs that are performed in a certain sequence determined logically or technologically and it has to be completed within (i) a specified time, (ii) a specified cost and (iii) meeting the performance standards. Examples of a project from fairly diverse fields could be cited. Some of them are given below: 1. Introducing a new product in the market. 2. Construction of a new bridge over a river or construction of a 25 storied building. 3. Executing a large and complex order on jobbing production. 4. Sending a spacecraft to the mars. All these projects are characterized by the following set of common implications, although they pertain to widely different fields. (i) The Large-scale characteristic: These projects are generally unusually large and complex. Thousands of suppliers, workers and other categories of persons are involved and their efforts have to be coordinated for completion of the project. (ii) The non-recurring characteristic: These projects are generally of a one-time nature. Neither in the past, nor in the future they are likely to undertaken substantially in the same form. (iii) Uncertain and critical dates: During of the various activities involved in such projects are usually uncertain. Further in such type of projects, many critical dates exits by which operations must be completed in order to complete the entire project on schedule. (iv) completion dead line: The fourth distinct feature of these projects is that there is dead line for the completion of the entire project. In case of any delay in the completion of the project, some penalty is levied for such delay beyond the dead line. The working methodology of Critical Path Analysis (CPA) which includes both CPM and PERT, consists of following five steps: 1. Analyse and breakdown the project in terms of specific activities and / or events. 2. Determine the interdependence and sequence of specific activities and prepare a network, 3. Assign estimates of time, cost or both to all the activities of the network. 4. Identify the longest or critical path through the network. 5. Monitor, evaluate and control the progress of the project by re-planning, rescheduling and reassignment of resources. 36

15. Simulation
Question 84 Write a short note on the advantages of simulation. (Nov 1996) Answer Advantages of simulation are enumerated below: 1. Simulation techniques allow experimentation with a model of the system rather than the actual operating system. Sometimes experimenting with the actual system itself could prove to be too costly and, in many cases too disruptive. For example, if you are comparing two ways of providing food service in a hospital, the confusion that would result from operating two different systems long enough to get valid observations might be too great. Similarly, the operation of a large computer central under a number of different operating alternatives might be too expensive to be feasible. 2. The non-technical manage can comprehend simulation more easily than a complex mathematical model. Simulation does not require simplifications and assumptions to the extent required in analytical solutions. A simulation model is easier to explain to management personnel since it is a description of the behaviour of some system or process. 3. Sometimes there is not sufficient time to allow the actual system to operate extensively. For example, if we were studying long-term trends in world population, we simply could not wait the required number of years to see results. Simulation allows the manger to incorporate time into an analysis. In a computer simulation of business operation the manager can compress the result of several years or periods into a few minutes of running time. 4. Simulation allows a user to analyze these large complex problems for which analytical results are not available. For example, in an inventory problem if the distribution for demand and lead time for an item follow a standard distribution, such as the poison distribution, then a mathematical or analytical solution can be found. However, when mathematically convenient distributions are not applicable to the problem, an analytical analysis of the problem may be impossible. A simulation model is a useful solution procedure for such problems. Question 85 (i) What is simulation? (ii) What are the steps in simulation? Answer (i) Simulation is a quantitative procedure which describes a process by developing a model of that process and then conducting a series of organized trial and error experiments to product the behaviour of the process over time. (ii) Steps in the simulation process: (i) Define the problem and system you intend to simulate. (ii)Formulate the model you intend to use. (iii) Test the model, compare with behaviour of the actual problem environment. (iv) Identify and collect data to test the model. (v)Run the simulation. (vi) Analyse the results of the simulation and, if desired, change the solution you are evaluating. (vii) Rerun the simulation to tests the new solution. (viii) Validate the simulation i.e., increase the chances of valid inferences.

16. Learning Curve Theory

Question 86 Explain the concept Learning curve. How can it be applied for Cost management? Answer The first time when a new operation is performed, both the workers and the operating procedures are untried. As the operation is repeated and the workers become more familiar with work, labour efficiency increases and the labour cost per unit declines. This process continues for some time and a regular rate of decline in cost per unit can be established. This rate can be used to predict future labour costs. The learning process starts from the point when the first unit comes out of the production line. In other words Learning curve is a function that measures how labour hours per unit decline as units of production increase because workers are learning and becoming better at their jobs. Cost Management Application: 1. Learning curve is useful in analysing cost volume profit relationship. The company can set low price of its product to generate high demand. As the production increases, cost per unit drops. 37

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

It helps in budgeting and profit planning. It enables the company in price fixation. In particular, the company can fix a lower price for repeat orders. It helps the design engineers to take suitable decisions based on expected rates of improvement. It helps in price negotiations. It is useful in setting standards and in performance evaluation.

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