Chapter 6

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

6.1

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

6-1 INTRODUCTION
The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetrickey block cipher published by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
6.1.1 History

In 1973, NIST published a request for proposals for a national symmetric-key cryptosystem. A proposal from IBM, a modification of a project called Lucifer, was accepted as DES. DES was published in the Federal Register in March 1975 as a draft of the Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS).
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6.1.2 Overview
DES is a block cipher, as shown in Figure 6.1.
Figure 6.1 Encryption and decryption with DES

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6-2 DES STRUCTURE

The encryption process is made of two permutations (P-boxes), which we call initial and final permutations, and sixteen Feistel rounds.

Topics discussed in this section:

6.2.1 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4
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Initial and Final Permutations Rounds Cipher and Reverse Cipher Examples

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Figure 6.2 General structure of DES

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6.2.1 Initial and Final Permutations

Figure 6.3 Initial and final permutation steps in DES

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6.2.1 Continue

Table 6.1 Initial and final permutation tables

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Example 6.1

Find the output of the initial permutation box when the input is given in hexadecimal as:

Solution Only bit 25 and bit 64 are 1s; the other bits are 0s. In the final permutation, bit 25 becomes bit 64 and bit 63 becomes bit 15. The result is

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6.2.1 Continued
Example 6.2 Prove that the initial and final permutations are the inverse of each other by finding the output of the final permutation if the input is

Solution The input has only two 1s; the output must also have only two 1s. Using Table 6.1, we can find the output related to these two bits. Bit 15 in the input becomes bit 63 in the output. Bit 64 in the input becomes bit 25 in the output. So the output has only two 1s, bit 25 and bit 63. The result in hexadecimal is

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6.2.2 Rounds
DES uses 16 rounds. Each round of DES is a Feistel cipher.

Figure 6.4
A round in DES (encryption site)

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6.2.2 Continued
DES Function

The heart of DES is the DES function. The DES function applies a 48-bit key to the rightmost 32 bits to produce a 32-bit output.
Figure 6.5
DES function

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6.2.2 Continue
Expansion P-box Since RI1 is a 32-bit input and KI is a 48-bit key, we first need to expand RI1 to 48 bits.

Figure 6.6 Expansion permutation

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Although the relationship between the input and output can be defined mathematically, DES uses Table 6.2 to define this P-box.
Table 6.6 Expansion P-box table

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Whitener (XOR) After the expansion permutation, DES uses the XOR operation on the expanded right section and the round key. Note that both the right section and the key are 48bits in length. Also note that the round key is used only in this operation.

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6.2.2 Continue
S-Boxes The S-boxes do the real mixing (confusion). DES uses 8 S-boxes, each with a 6-bit input and a 4-bit output. See Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7 S-boxes

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Figure 6.8 S-box rule

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Table 6.3 shows the permutation for S-box 1. For the rest of the boxes see the textbook.

Table 6.3 S-box 1

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Example 6.3
The input to S-box 1 is 100011. What is the output?

Solution If we write the first and the sixth bits together, we get 11 in binary, which is 3 in decimal. The remaining bits are 0001 in binary, which is 1 in decimal. We look for the value in row 3, column 1, in Table 6.3 (S-box 1). The result is 12 in decimal, which in binary is 1100. So the input 100011 yields the output 1100.

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6.2.3 Cipher and Reverse Cipher

Using mixers and swappers, we can create the cipher and reverse cipher, each having 16 rounds.

First Approach To achieve this goal, one approach is to make the last round (round 16) different from the others; it has only a mixer and no swapper.
Note

In the first approach, there is no swapper in the last round.

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6.2.3 Continued
Figure 6.9 DES cipher and reverse cipher for the first approach

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Alternative Approach We can make all 16 rounds the same by including one swapper to the 16th round and add an extra swapper after that (two swappers cancel the effect of each other).

Key Generation
The round-key generator creates sixteen 48-bit keys out of a 56-bit cipher key.

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Figure 6.10
Key generation

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Table 6.12 Parity-bit drop table

Table 6.13 Number of bits shifts

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Table 6.14 Key-compression table

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6.2.4 Examples
Example 6.5
We choose a random plaintext block and a random key, and determine what the ciphertext block would be (all in hexadecimal):

Table 6.15 Trace of data for Example 6.5

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Example 6.5 Continued
Table 6.15 Trace of data for Example 6.5 (Conintued

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Example 6.6
Let us see how Bob, at the destination, can decipher the ciphertext received from Alice using the same key. Table 6.16 shows some interesting points.

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6-3 DES ANALYSIS

Critics have used a strong magnifier to analyze DES. Tests have been done to measure the strength of some desired properties in a block cipher.

Topics discussed in this section:

6.3.1 Properties 6.3.2 Design Criteria 6.3.3 DES Weaknesses
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6.3.1 Properties
Two desired properties of a block cipher are the avalanche effect and the completeness.
Example 6.7 To check the avalanche effect in DES, let us encrypt two plaintext blocks (with the same key) that differ only in one bit and observe the differences in the number of bits in each round.

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Example 6.7 Continued
Although the two plaintext blocks differ only in the rightmost bit, the ciphertext blocks differ in 29 bits. This means that changing approximately 1.5 percent of the plaintext creates a change of approximately 45 percent in the ciphertext. Table 6.17 Number of bit differences for Example 6.7

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Completeness effect Completeness effect means that each bit of the ciphertext needs to depend on many bits on the plaintext.

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6.3.2 Design Criteria

S-Boxe The design provides confusion and diffusion of bits from each round to the next. P-Boxes They provide diffusion of bits.

Number of Rounds DES uses sixteen rounds of Feistel ciphers. the ciphertext is thoroughly a random function of plaintext and ciphertext.

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6.3.3 DES Weaknesses

During the last few years critics have found some weaknesses in DES. Weaknesses in Cipher Design 1. Weaknesses in S-boxes 2. Weaknesses in P-boxes 3. Weaknesses in Key

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Example 6.8
Let us try the first weak key in Table 6.18 to encrypt a block two times. After two encryptions with the same key the original plaintext block is created. Note that we have used the encryption algorithm two times, not one encryption followed by another decryption.

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Figure 6.11 Double encryption and decryption with a weak key

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Figure 6.12 A pair of semi-weak keys in encryption and decryption

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Example 6.9
What is the probability of randomly selecting a weak, a semiweak, or a possible weak key? Solution DES has a key domain of 256. The total number of the above keys are 64 (4 + 12 + 48). The probability of choosing one of these keys is 8.8 1016, almost impossible.

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Example 6.10
Let us test the claim about the complement keys. We have used an arbitrary key and plaintext to find the corresponding ciphertext. If we have the key complement and the plaintext, we can obtain the complement of the previous ciphertext (Table 6.20).

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6-4 Multiple DES

The major criticism of DES regards its key length. Fortunately DES is not a group. This means that we can use double or triple DES to increase the key size.

Topics discussed in this section:

6.4.1 Double DES 6.4.4 Triple DES
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A substitution that maps every possible input to every possible output is a group.
Figure 6.13 Composition of mapping

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6.4.1 Double DES

The first approach is to use double DES (2DES). Meet-in-the-Middle Attack However, using a known-plaintext attack called meet-inthe-middle attack proves that double DES improves this vulnerability slightly (to 257 tests), but not tremendously (to 2112).

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Figure 6.14 Meet-in-the-middle attack for double DES

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6.4.1 Continued

Figure 6.15 Tables for meet-in-the-middle attack

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6.4.2 Triple DES

Figure 6.16 Triple DES with two keys

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6.4.2 Continuous
Triple DES with Three Keys The possibility of known-plaintext attacks on triple DES with two keys has enticed some applications to use triple DES with three keys. Triple DES with three keys is used by many applications such as PGP (See Chapter 16).

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Chapter 8

Encipherment Using Modern Symmetric-Key Ciphers

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 8.49

8-1 USE OF MODERN BLOCK CIPHERS

Symmetric-key encipherment can be done using modern block ciphers. Modes of operation have been devised to encipher text of any size employing either DES or AES. Topics discussed in this section:
8.1.1 8.1.2 8.1.3 8.1.4 8.1.5
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Electronic Codebook (ECB) Mode Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) Mode Cipher Feedback (CFB) Mode Output Feedback (OFB) Mode Counter (CTR) Mode

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Figure 8.1 Modes of operation

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8.1.1 Electronic Codebook (ECB) Mode

The simplest mode of operation is called the electronic codebook (ECB) mode.

Figure 8.2 Electronic codebook (ECB) mode

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8.1.1
Example 8.1

Continued

It can be proved that each plaintext block at Alices site is exactly recovered at Bobs site. Because encryption and decryption are inverses of each other,

Example 8.2

This mode is called electronic codebook because one can precompile 2K codebooks (one for each key) in which each codebook has 2n entries in two columns. Each entry can list the plaintext and the corresponding ciphertext blocks. However, if K and n are large, the codebook would be far too large to precompile and maintain.
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8.1.1

Continued

Example 8.3 Assume that Eve works in a company a few hours per month (her monthly payment is very low). She knows that the company uses several blocks of information for each employee in which the seventh block is the amount of money to be deposited in the employees account. Eve can intercept the ciphertext sent to the bank at the end of the month, replace the block with the information about her payment with a copy of the block with the information about the payment of a full-time colleague. Each month Eve can receive more money than she deserves.

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Error Propagation A single bit error in transmission can create errors in several in the corresponding block. However, the error does not have any effect on the other blocks.

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8.1.2 Cipher Block Chaining (CBC) Mode

In CBC mode, each plaintext block is exclusive-ored with the previous ciphertext block before being encrypted.
Figure 8.3 Cipher block chaining (CBC) mode

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Figure 8.3 Cipher block chaining (CBC) mode

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Continued

Example 8.4
It can be proved that each plaintext block at Alices site is recovered exactly at Bobs site. Because encryption and decryption are inverses of each other,

Initialization Vector (IV) The initialization vector (IV) should be known by the sender and the receiver.

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8.1.2 Continued
Error Propagation In CBC mode, a single bit error in ciphertext block Cj during transmission may create error in most bits in plaintext block Pj during decryption.

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8.1.3 Cipher Feedback (CFB) Mode

In some situations, we need to use DES or AES as secure ciphers, but the plaintext or ciphertext block sizes are to be smaller.
Figure 8.4 Encryption in cipher feedback (CFB) mode

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Note

In CFB mode, encipherment and decipherment use the encryption function of the underlying block cipher.
The relation between plaintext and ciphertext blocks is shown below:

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CFB as a Stream Cipher
Figure 8.5 Cipher feedback (CFB) mode as a stream cipher

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18.1.4 Output Feedback (OFB) Mode

In this mode each bit in the ciphertext is independent of the previous bit or bits. This avoids error propagation.
Figure 8.6 Encryption in output feedback (OFB) mode

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OFB as a Stream Cipher
Figure 8.7 Output feedback (OFB) mode as a stream cipher

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8.1.5 Counter (CTR) Mode

In the counter (CTR) mode, there is no feedback. The pseudorandomness in the key stream is achieved using a counter.
Figure 8.8 Encryption in counter (CTR) mode

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Figure 8.9 Counter (CTR) mode as a stream cipher

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Comparison of Different Modes

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8-2 USE OF STREAM CIPHERS

Although the five modes of operations enable the use of block ciphers for encipherment of messages or files in large units and small units, sometimes pure stream are needed for enciphering small units of data such as characters or bits.

Topics discussed in this section:

8.2.1 8.2.2
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RC4 A5/1

8.2.1 RC4
RC4 is a byte-oriented stream cipher in which a byte (8 bits) of a plaintext is exclusive-ored with a byte of key to produce a byte of a ciphertext. State RC4 is based on the concept of a state.

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Figure 8.10 The idea of RC4 stream cipher

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8.2.2 A5/1
A5/1 (a member of the A5 family of ciphers) is used in the Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM), a network for mobile telephone communication..
Figure 8.11 General outline of A5/1

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Key Generator A5/1 uses three LFSRs with 19, 22, and 23 bits.
Figure 8.12 Three LFSRs in A5/1

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8.2.2
Example 8.7

Continued

At a point of time the clocking bits are 1, 0, and 1. Which LFSR is clocked (shifted)?

Solution The result of Majority (1, 0, 1) = 1. LFSR1 and LAFS3 are shifted, but LFSR2 is not.

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Encryption/Decryption The bit streams created from the key generator are buffered to form a 228-bit key that is exclusive-ored with the plaintext frame to create the ciphertext frame. Encryption/decryption is done one frame at a time.

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