Biology-Unit 2 Revision Powerpoint (Autosaved)
Biology-Unit 2 Revision Powerpoint (Autosaved)
Biology-Unit 2 Revision Powerpoint (Autosaved)
magnified image Electron beam generated by electron gun, focused by electromagnets Membranes and other structures stained by heavy ions, stand out as dark areas EM better than optical microscope laser beam short than light rays
Cell
particular function
E.g. Epithelial cells, muscle cells
Tissue
Similar cell types from the same origin working
Organ
Several cell types working together for many functions Made up of tissues
Organ system
A group of organs working together to carry out a
particular function.
E.g. The circulatory system
Nucleus
Largest in Eukaryotic cell (10-20 micrometres in
diameter)
Double membrane with pores Contains chromosomes
Nucleus
Nucleoplasm Nuclear envelope Pore
Outer membrane
Nucleolus
Inner membrane
Chromatin
Histone
nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Package and order DNA into structural units called nucleosomes. Main component of chromatin
Nucleolus
Site of ribosome synthesis Consists of protein and RNA
Mitochondria
Rod shaped/cylindrical organelles Large (0.5-1.5 micrometres wide, 3-10 micrometres long) Found in all cells, large numbers in metabolically active
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic reticulum
RER
Ribosomes attached to outer surface
SER
No ribosomes Site of synthesis of proteins needed by cells (e.g.
lipids)
Golgi apparatus
Stack-like collection of flattened membranous sacs Smooth (no ribosomes), curved cisternae One side formed by fusion of membranes of vesicles
from ER, other side vesicles are formed from swellings at margins that become pinched off
Modifies proteins by addition of carbohydrates
Golgi apparatus
Protein material moves from convex side to concave
Cisternae
Lysosomes
Small spherical organelles, single membrane Contain concentrated mixture of hydrolytic enzymes
which are produced in Golgi apparatus or RER Breakdown contents of imported food vacuoles Then broken down into products of digestion which escape into cytoplasm Also fuse and digest broken-down organelles in cytoplasm
Lysosomes
Microtubules
Straight, unbranched, hollow cylinders (25nm wide)
Microtubules
Centrioles
Centrosome= 2 perpendicular centrioles
Centrioles
Eukaryotes
Eukaryotic cells = good nucleus True nucleus present
for digestion
Useful, integrated into host cell Explains why mitochondria and chloroplasts have a
Animal Cells
Plant Cells
polysaccharides (e.g. pectin, hemicelluloses) Sticky middle lamella holds neighbouring cells together Lignin makes wall strong and impermeable
Chloroplasts
Part of group of organelles known as the plastids
Chloroplasts
Vacuole
A fluid-filled space in the cytoplasm surrounded by a
sap.
Prokaryotes
Cells containing no true nucleus
Mitosis
Interphase
G1 = First growth phase. New organelles synthesized in
Prophase
Chromatids condense , forming bivalents
Nuclear envelope breaks down Nucleolus breaks down Spindle fibre begins to form Centrioles migrate to opposite poles
Metaphase
Centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell
Microtubules of the cytoplasm start to form spindle Microtubules attach to centromeres of chromatids
Anaphase
Spindle fibres contract
Chromatids separate Centromere leads Spindle fibres attached to Kinetochores Move to opposite poles of the cell
Telophase
Chromosomes are in the process of decondensing and
are becoming visible Nucleus visible Nucleolus present Spindle broken down 2 separate nuclei visible Chromatin visible Evidence of cell plate formation
Cytokinesis
Cell organelles (e.g. mitochondria, chloroplasts) are
cytoplasm in half
Two cells form
Chromatids
Daughter strands of a duplicated chromosome joined
by a centromere
Kinetochore
A protein structure on chromatids where the spindle
Cell cycle
Mitosis
Meiosis
Gamete formation 2 stages: Meiosis I and Meiosis II Prophase I, Metaphase I, Anaphase I, Telophase I,
Cytokinesis, Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II, Cytokinesis
Four daughter cells produced, haploid Same as mitosis, repeats (no interphase on second cycle)
Independent assortment
Crossing over
Pairs of homologous chromosomes (bivalent)
Bivalent coils and shortens continuously, chromatids
break Broken ends re-join at corresponding sites, chiasma forms Lengths of genes exchanged New gene combinations produced
Independent assortment
Bivalents line up randomly on equator during meiosis I
Gene locus
The location of a gene on a
chromosome
Sexual Reproduction
Fusion of two gametes (fertilisation) = zygote
Meiosis halves the normal chromosome number Gametes= haploid (contains half of the normal
chromosome number)
Diploid= cells that contain the full number of
chromosomes
Asexual Reproduction
Single organism produces offspring, clones No gamete formation, cells of new offspring produced by
mitosis
Advantage
Disadvantages
= a large number of individuals can be quickly produced by a single organism = no variation in offspring, genetic mutations will be passed on, exponential growth
Fertilisation in mammals
Occurs in upper part of oviduct Erect penis into vagina, ejaculation Vagina acidic, semen alkaline to neutralise so sperm can survive Waves of contractions by muscles in uterus walls to draw semen into oviduct Sperm reaches ovum, enzymes break acrosome Digests through zona pellucida Contents of cortical granules released by exocytosis to harden membrane and prevent other sperms entering (polyspermy) Meiosis II is completed Nuclei fuse
Haploid cells
Cells with half of the total number of chromosomes , n In humans, n= 23 Gametes When fertilisation occurs, zygote will have the full number
of chromosomes
Enables mixing of alleles
Sperm cell
Formed in seminiferous tubules in the testes Acrosome contains hydrolytic enzymes to
mitochondria
Flagellum Streamlined Receptors
respiration, energy (ATP)for sperm mobility so sperm can swim down fallopian tubes to egg less resistance to motion bind to egg cell surface membrane
Enzyme release
Sperm comes into contact with zona pellucida
Acrosome swells
Vesicle/ acrosome fuses with sperm cell surface
membrane
Enzymes (e.g. acrotin) are released by exocytosis
Egg cell
down towards ovary (growth controlled by tube nucleus) Pollen grain contains tube nucleus and generative nucleus Pollen germinates, division of generative nucleus, two haploid gamete nuclei form and move down pollen tube and enter embryo sac One fuses with egg cell (zygote) other with 2 nuclei ( triploid cell-seeds storage tissue, endosperm)
Stem Cells
Undifferentiated cell Can give rise to other types of cell Can proliferate Totipotent = can differentiate into any cell type Pluripotent = can differentiate into almost any cell
type Multipotent= is restricted into what type of cell it can become (e.g. bone marrow cell)
Brain/skin/liver cells
Addition of adult nucleus to enucleated egg cell
and diseases
IVF
In vitro fertilisation
Drug injected to block normal menstrual cycle steps Synthetic FSH injected superovulation
healthiest sperms Laparoscope with ultrasound used to remove some egg cells from ovaries Mixed with sperms in dish and incubated Up to three embryos transferred back into uterus
children
Enables cancer survivors to have children using
homes
Excess embryos are potential human lives
Blastocyst
conception
Outer blastocyst cell layer goes on to form the placenta Inner cell mass goes on to form tissues of developing
Cloning
Produces genetically identical offspring
Somatic cell taken from donor sheep, egg cell taken
from second donor sheep Somatic cell nucleus placed inside egg cell nucleus Electric shock given to start mitosis, grown in culture Placed in surrogate, clone produced that is identical to somatic cell donor
unsuccessful
High proportion of offspring produced by cloning have
health problems (Dolly the sheep developed arthritis at a fairly young age, had to be put down)
Gene Expression
Some genes are switched on (expressed), producing
- galactosidase
Enzyme
Produced by the prokaryote Escherichia coli Breaks down the carbohydrate lactose into glucose and
galactose
the DNA
RNA polymerase cannot bind No mRNA produced Prevents transcription of - galactosidase gene
metabolised
Once lactose is used up, repressor molecule blocks
transcription again
Regulator gene
A gene that is involved in the turning on or off the
Operator gene
A sequence of bases when a repressor binds to it
Structural gene
A gene whose product is an enzyme, or protein that is
surrounding muscle cells, causes muscles to express other genes which turn them into bone cells
Master genes
E.g. Fruit flies Drosophila Control the development of each segment of the body Master genes discovered when mutations causing segments
Produce mRNA which is translated into signal proteins Signal proteins switch on genes that produce proteins
A
Sepals Petals
Stamens Carpels
Apoptosis
cytoplasm fragments
Polygenic inheritance
The inheritance of phenotypes that are determined by
chromosomes
Multifactorial
Phenotypes that are determined by several genes and
environmental factors
E.g. Skin colour
Discontinuous variation
Continuous variation
Height
Multifactorial Continuous variation Human height increasing
evidence that taller men have more children, greater movements of people (less inbreeding), better nutrition, improved health, end of child labour (more energy into growth), better heating of houses and quality of clothes (more energy into growth)
Melanin
Dark pigment in skin and hair (more melanin = darker) Made in melanocytes found in skin and hair follicle root Melanocyte activated by melanocyte-stimulating hormone
(MSH) Receptors for MSH on surface of melanocyte cells Melanocytes place melanin on melanosomes which are transferred to surrounding skin and hair cells Surround nucleus, protect DNA from harmful UV
Effect of UV on melanin
Increases amount of MSH on MSH receptors Melanocytes more active, skin darkens Hair not darker, UV light causes chemical and physical
MAOA
Monoamine oxidase A, gene that occurs on X
chromosome
Catalyses breakdown of neurotransmitter in brain
behaviour
Cancer
Rate of cell division > rate of cell death
Oncogenes
Code for proteins that stimulate transition from one
Xylem
Water transport:
Lumen Waterproof Pores Support: Lignin Rings/spirals
enables vertical movement of water prevents water loss enables sideways movement of water strength strength and flexibility
Xylem
leaves Water diffuses through stomata, down diffusion gradient (transpiration) Water that leaves is replaced by water from roots Water evaporation in substomatal cavities provide force needed to draw water up the plant by capillary action (surface tension) Transpiration stream stream of water passing through plant (continuous)
Phloem
Translocation movement of sugars up and down the plant,
requires energy
Sieve tube elements living, tubular cells, connected end to
end, cytoplasm is present but in small amounts, lacks a nucleus and most organelles for more space for solutes to move, cell walls made of cellulose so solutes can move laterally a well as vertically
Sieve plates formed by perforations in cell walls Companion cells controls the movement of solutes and
Phloem
Sclerenchyma tissue
Dead cells
Vascular bundle
Vascular bundle
Phloem Stem
Parenchyma
Plant cells turgid, vacuoles filled with cell sap
surrounding cells
Rigidity
Lignin
Polymer produced by plant cells to strengthen the cell wall Lignin impregnates cell wall, cells become lignified Entry of water and solutes into them become restricted Tonoplast breaks down, autolysis of cell contents (cell
Water
Solvent Thermal properties High surface tension and cohesion Density and freezing properties
Water - solvent
Many chemicals dissolve easily in water
bonds
Therefore, water heats up and cools slowly Avoids rapid temp. changes in organisms
Transpiration
Process in which water vapour is lost from the leaf
surface
Increase of rate of transpiration Increase wind
Starch
reactions Composed of more than one type of molecule (amylopectin and amylose) All monomers have the same orientation
respiratory substrate
Large unreactive, in soluble, no osmotic effect Compact can be stored Branched increased mobilisation of glucose units
Cellulose
Straight chain of single glucose units
-1,4- glycosidic linkages formed by condensation
reactions Held together by hydrogen bonds between OH groups (micro fibrils) Alternate glucose units rotated by 180 Insoluble, tough, slightly elastic
Plasmodesmata
Middle lamella
Pectin layer which cements
Pits
The main channels by which water may enter and
Pectin
Polymers of single galactose units Soluble dietary fibre, daily intake = five grams Become bound together by calcium ions, forming calcium
pectate (present in middle lamella, glues adjacent cells together) During fruit ripening, pectin broken down by pectinesterase and pectinase enzymes, fruit becomes softer as middle lamella breaks down Gelling agent, thickening agent and stabiliser in foods (e.g. in jam)
Hemicelluloses
Short, branched polysaccharide
Seeds
Adapted to protect embryo, aid dispersal and provide
Endosperm (storage)
Seed banks
Only seeds with a living embryo are taken, detected using
X-ray
Seeds are cleaned, dried
Stored at low temperatures Viability regularly tested If viability decreases, collect fresh seed for storage
Sustainability
Sustainability = resources that meet human needs
renewable, CO2 release is equal to CO2 removed when crop was grown
Oil isnt sustainable fossil fuel, non-renewable,
Clinical trials
Animal testing (e.g. rats) legal requirement, to look Phase 1 Small dose of drug tested on a small no. of
for toxicity, well known metabolism, no harm to humans healthy individuals, check for side-effects effectiveness of drug patients
Phase 2 Tested on small no. of patients to measurement Phase 3 Double blind trial, testing on larger group of
Double-blind trial
Some patients are given the new drug whilst others are
given a placebo (e.g. sugar-coated dummy pill or old drug) Doctors and patients do not know which one is the new drug Reduces bias Can see if new drug works better than the placebo/ old drug
Three domains
Archaea
Eukaryote/ Eukarya
Bacteria
Taxonomy
The science of classification
Kingdom Phylum
Class
Order Family Genus Species
Used in the Binomial system
Species
A group of organisms with similar morphology,
physiology and behaviour, which can interbreed and produce fertile offspring and are reproductively isolated from other species
Habitat
A place where an organism lives
Ecosystem
A community of organisms and their surroundings
Community
The total of all populations living together in a
particular habitat
Population
A group of organisms, all of the same species, and all
Adaptation
A process in which an organism becomes fitted to its
environment
Depends on: strength of selection pressure, size of
Types of adaptation
Anatomical (e.g. ears of African elephants larger
is exposed to sunlight)
Genetic Diversity
The number of different alleles in a population Allele frequency
Niche
The role of a species within a community
Evolution
A change is allele frequency in a population over
time
Process of evolution
A population has some naturally occurring genetic variation with new alleles created through mutations. A change in the environment causes a change in the selection pressures acting on the population. An allele which was previously of no particular advantage now becomes favourable Organisms with the allele are more likely to survive, reproduce and so produce offspring. Their offspring are more likely to have the allele, so it becomes more common in the population.
Species richness
The total number of different species within a given
area or community
Calculated using Simpson Diversity Index:
Where
diversity
N(N-1) n(n-1)
= total no. of organisms of all species found = no. of individuals of each species
Allele
Different forms of a gene
genotype of the recessive allele Recessive causes a phenotype only seen in a homozygous genotype
Punnet square
Shows the probability of an offspring having a
particular genotype
Homozygous
When identical alleles of the gene are present on both
homologous chromosomes
Heterozygous
When an organisms cells contain two different alleles
Phenotype
The appearance of a cell or organism
Abiotic factors
A non-biological factor that is part of the environment
Biotic factors
Associated with competition within a single
Endemism
location
Zoos
Maintain endangered species
Education
Captive breeding programmes Scientific research Reintroduction into the wild Studbooks
Genetic drift
Genetic drift = change in allele frequency overtime
on by chance
Reduction in genetic variation
Inbreeding depression
In a small population, likelihood of closely individuals
mating increases
Frequency of homozygous genotypes rises, heterozygotes
lost
Offspring inherits recessive alleles from both parents Harmful effects, offspring less able to survive an reproduce,
Experiments
5mm of root tip cut, transferred to watch glass Add 30 drops of aceto-orecin stain, 3 drops HCL Heated 3-5 minutes (steam bath/Bunsen burner) Tissues transferred onto microscope slide, root tip gently pulled apart (mounted needles) More stain added, cover slip, tissue firmly squashed by thumb pressure Examined under high power microscope Safety precautions: Cut away from oneself, wear a lab coat
phosphorus, minus magnesium, minus nitrogen, minus potassium, minus iron, minus sulphur, minus calcium, distilled water) 15cm3 of water in each 5 healthy Lemna plants into each, add lids and incubate together for several weeks, examining twice a week Record no. of live plants, green leaves, dead leaves, length of longest root
10cm3 ethanol Filter off ethanol Add bacteria stain Bacteria need to be evenly distributed on sterile agar plate Incubate to encourage bacteria growth Measure diameter
dry them
diameter and fibre from same source case fibre snaps, be careful that the masses do not land on feet