Industrial Radiography (Rev)
Industrial Radiography (Rev)
Industrial Radiography (Rev)
Four common types of NDT methods used when assessing weldments are: i. Penetrant test
ii. Magnetic Particle testing iii. Ultrasonic Testing iv. Radiography testing
Introduction
This module presents information on the NDT method of radiographic inspection Radiography uses penetrating radiation that is directed towards a component. The component stops some of the radiation. The
amount that is stopped or absorbed is affected by material density and thickness differences. These differences in absorption can be recorded on film, or electronically. Areas of Reduced thickness/lower density will absorb less radiation so appear as dark region on film and vice versa
Outline
Electromagnetic Radiation General Principles of
Radiography Sources of Radiation
Gamma Radiography X-ray Radiography
Electromagnetic Radiation
The radiation used in Radiography testing is a higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves that we see every day. Visible light is in the same family as xrays and gamma rays.
X-ray film
= more exposure
Top view of developed film
Penetration Power
Aluminum
2.5 in
IDL 2001
Flaw Orientation
Radiography has sensitivity limitations when detecting cracks.
Optimum Angle
= easy to
detect
X-rays see a crack as a thickness variation and the larger the variation, the easier the crack is to detect. When the path of the x-rays is not parallel to a crack, the thickness variation is less and the crack may not be visible.
IDL 2001
0o
10o
20o
Radiation Sources
Two of the most commonly used sources of radiation in industrial radiography are x-ray generators and gamma ray sources. Industrial radiography is often subdivided into Xray Radiography or Gamma Radiography, depending on the source of radiation used.
Gamma Radiography
Gamma rays are produced by
a radioisotope. A radioisotope has an unstable nuclei that does not have enough binding energy to hold the nucleus together. The spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in the release of energy and matter is known as radioactive decay.
material used in industrial radiography is artificially produced. This is done by subjecting stable material to a source of neutrons in a special nuclear reactor. This process is called activation.
Units
Activity or strength of radioactive source is
expressed in Curie(Ci) or Becquerel Becquerel: 1 disintegration per sec 3.7x10^10 or 37 giga becquerel= 1 Curie
where N0 is the initial quantity of the substance that will decay (this quantity may be measured in grams, moles, number of atoms,Curie etc. N(t) is the quantity that still remains and has not yet decayed after a time t, t1 / 2 is the half-life of the decaying quantity,, is a positive number called the decay constant of the decaying quantity.
The radioactive capsule is attached to a cable to form what is often called a pigtail. The pigtail has a special connector at the other end that attaches to a drive cable.
X-ray Radiography
Unlike gamma rays, x-rays are produced by an X-ray generator system. These systems typically include an X-ray Vacuum Tube, a high voltage generator, and a control console.
filament much the same as in a light bulb. Current is passed through the filament which heats it. The heat causes electrons to be stripped off. The high voltage causes these free electrons to be pulled toward a target material (usually made of tungsten) located in the anode. The electrons impact against the target. This impact causes an energy exchange which causes xrays to be created.
Electrons + -
Imaging Modalities
Several different imaging methods are available to display the final image in industrial radiography:
Film Radiography Real Time Radiography Computed Tomography (CT) Digital Radiography (DR) Computed Radiography (CR)
Film Radiography
One of the most widely used and
oldest imaging mediums in industrial radiography is radiographic film.
developed in a darkroom, silver bromide turns to black metallic silver which forms the image.
Image Quality
Image quality is critical for accurate assessment of a test specimens integrity. Various tools called Image Quality Indicators (IQIs) are used for this purpose. There are many different designs of IQIs. Some contain artificial
holes of varying size drilled in metal plaques while others are manufactured from wires of differing diameters mounted next to one another.
Radiograph Interpretation
In addition to producing high quality radiographs one
should also be skilled in radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps: (1) detection, (2) interpretation, and (3) evaluation. All of these steps make use of the radiographer's acuity. Visual acuity is the ability to resolve a spatial pattern in an image. The ability of an individual to detect discontinuities in radiography is also affected by the lighting condition in the place of viewing, and the experience level for recognizing various features in the image. The following material is to help develop an understanding of the types of defects found in weldments and how they appear in a radiograph.
Defects A flaw or flaws that by nature or accumulated effect render a part or product unable to meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or specifications. The term designates rejectability. Discontinuities
An interruption of the typical structure of a material, such as a lack of homogeneity in its mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics. A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect
Cold lap
is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into the base material without bonding.
Porosity
is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters, or in rows. Sometimes, porosity is elongated and may appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material and it will have a higher radiographic density than the surrounding area.
Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated withmoisture. The moisture turns into a gas when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity in the radiograph but the indications will be grouped close together.
Slag inclusions
are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.
occurs when the weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the weldment.
Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base metal. Appearance on radiograph: usually appears as a dark line or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining area.
Internal concavity or suck back is a condition where the weld metal has contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks similar to a lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image.
Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does not follow a ground edge.
External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the weld area.
Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image shows a noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by the failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area.
Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be higher (darker) than the image density of the surrounding base material.
is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engineering requirements.
Cracks
can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.
Tungsten inclusions
Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in tungsten inert gas welding. If improper welding procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is more dense than aluminum or steel, therefore it shows up as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph.
Burn-Through
results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld, creating a thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn-through appears as dark spots, which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).
Oxide inclusions
are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding material and, therefore, appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radiograph
Radiation Safety
Use of radiation sources in industrial radiography is heavily regulated by state and federal organizations due to potential public and personal risks.
Technicians who work with radiation must wear monitoring devices that keep track of their total absorption, and alert them when they are in a high radiation area.
Survey Meter
Pocket Dosimeter
Radiation Alarm
Radiation Badge
1 Sv = 0.1 millirem 1 Sv = 1 Joule/unit of mass (Kg) It is measured by device called Survey meter
Advantages of Radiography
Technique is not limited by material type or density. Can inspect assembled components. Minimum surface preparation required. Sensitive to changes in thickness, corrosion, voids, cracks, and material density changes. Detects both surface and subsurface defects. Provides a permanent record of the inspection.
Disadvantages of Radiography
intensity radiation. Many hours of technician training prior to use. Access to both sides of sample required. Orientation of equipment and flaw can be critical. Determining flaw depth is impossible without additional angled exposures. Expensive initial equipment cost.