Programming the Basic Computer

PROGRAMMING THE BASIC COMPUTER

Introduction Machine Language Assembly Language Assembler Program Loops Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations Subroutines Input-Output Programming

Programming the Basic Computer

Introduction

INTRODUCTION
Those concerned with computer architecture should have a knowledge of both hardware and software because the two branches influence each other. Instruction Set of the Basic Computer
Symbol AND ADD LDA STA BUN BSA ISZ CLA CLE CMA CME CIR CIL INC SPA SNA SZA SZE HLT INP OUT SKI SKO ION IOF Hexa code Description 0 or 8 AND M to AC 1 or 9 Add M to AC, carry to E 2 or A Load AC from M 3 or B Store AC in M 4 or C Branch unconditionally to m 5 or D Save return address in m and branch to m+1 6 or E Increment M and skip if zero 7800 Clear AC 7400 Clear E 7200 Complement AC 7100 Complement E 7080 Circulate right E and AC 7040 Circulate left E and AC 7020 Increment AC, carry to E 7010 Skip if AC is positive 7008 Skip if AC is negative 7004 Skip if AC is zero 7002 Skip if E is zero 7001 Halt computer F800 Input information and clear flag F400 Output information and clear flag F200 Skip if input flag is on F100 Skip if output flag is on F080 Turn interrupt on F040 Turn interrupt off m: effective address M: memory word (operand) found at m

Programming the Basic Computer

Machine Language

MACHINE LANGUAGE
Program A list of instructions or statements for directing the computer to perform a required data processing task Various types of programming languages - Hierarchy of programming languages Machine-language - Binary code - Octal or hexadecimal code Assembly-language - Symbolic code High-level language (Assembler)

(Compiler)

Programming the Basic Computer

Machine Language

COMPARISON OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

Binary Program to Add Two Numbers
Location 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 Instruction Code 0010 0000 0000 0100 0001 0000 0000 0101 0011 0000 0000 0110 0111 0000 0000 0001 0000 0000 0101 0011 1111 1111 1110 1001 0000 0000 0000 0000

Hexa program
Location 000 001 002 003 004 005 006 Instruction 2004 1005 3006 7001 0053 FFE9 0000

Program with Symbolic OP-Code

Location 000 001 002 003 004 005 006 LDA ADD STA HLT 0053 FFE9 0000 Instruction Comments 004 Load 1st operand into AC 005 Add 2nd operand to AC 006 Store sum in location 006 Halt computer 1st operand 2nd operand (negative) Store sum here

Assembly-Language Program
ORG LDA ADD STA HLT DEC DEC DEC END 0 A B C 83 -23 0 /Origin of program is location 0 /Load operand from location A /Add operand from location B /Store sum in location C /Halt computer /Decimal operand /Decimal operand /Sum stored in location C /End of symbolic program

A, B, C,

Fortran Program
INTEGER A, B, C DATA A,83 / B,-23 C=A+B END

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Assembly Language

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
Syntax of the BC assembly language Each line is arranged in three columns called fields Label field - May be empty or may specify a symbolic address consists of up to 3 characters - Terminated by a comma Instruction field - Specifies a machine or a pseudo instruction - May specify one of * Memory reference instr. (MRI) MRI consists of two or three symbols separated by spaces. ADD OPR (direct address MRI) ADD PTR I (indirect address MRI) * Register reference or input-output instr. Non-MRI does not have an address part * Pseudo instr. with or without an operand Symbolic address used in the instruction field must be defined somewhere as a label Comment field - May be empty or may include a comment

Programming the Basic Computer

Assembly Language

PSEUDO-INSTRUCTIONS
ORG N Hexadecimal number N is the memory loc. for the instruction or operand listed in the following line END Denotes the end of symbolic program DEC N Signed decimal number N to be converted to the binary HEX N Hexadecimal number N to be converted to the binary Example: Assembly language program to subtract two numbers
ORG 100 LDA SUB CMA INC ADD MIN STA DIF HLT DEC 83 DEC -23 HEX 0 END / Origin of program is location 100 / Load subtrahend to AC / Complement AC / Increment AC / Add minuend to AC / Store difference / Halt computer / Minuend / Subtrahend / Difference stored here / End of symbolic program

MIN, SUB, DIF,

Programming the Basic Computer

Assembly Language

TRANSLATION TO BINARY

Hexadecimal Code Location Content 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 2107 7200 7020 1106 3108 7001 0053 FFE9 0000

Symbolic Program ORG 100 LDA SUB CMA INC ADD MIN STA DIF HLT DEC 83 DEC -23 HEX 0 END

MIN, SUB, DIF,

Programming the Basic Computer

Assembler

ASSEMBLER
Assembler

- FIRST PASS -

Source Program - Symbolic Assembly Language Program Object Program - Binary Machine Language Program

Two pass assembler

1st pass: generates a table that correlates all user defined (address) symbols with their binary equivalent value 2nd pass: binary translation

First pass

First pass

LC := 0
Scan next line of code Set LC yes Label yes Store symbol in addresssymbol table together with value of LC Increment LC END no yes no ORG no

Go to second pass

Programming the Basic Computer

Assembler

ASSEMBLER

- SECOND PASS -

Second Pass Machine instructions are translated by means of table-lookup procedures; (1. Pseudo-Instruction Table, 2. MRI Table, 3. Non-MRI Table 4. Address Symbol Table)
Second pass
LC <- 0 Scan next line of code

Done
Set LC yes yes no END

Pseudo instr. no yes Get operation code and set bits 2-4 Search addresssymbol table for binary equivalent of symbol address and set bits 5-16 yes I no MRI

yes

ORG

no
no DEC or HEX Convert operand to binary no and store in location given by LC

Valid non-MRI instr. yes

Store binary equivalent of instruction in location given by LC

Error in line of code

Set first bit to 1

Set first bit to 0 Increment LC

Assemble all parts of binary instruction and store in location given by LC

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Program Loops

PROGRAM LOOPS
Loop: A sequence of instructions that are executed many times, each with a different set of data Fortran program to add 100 numbers: DIMENSION A(100)
3 INTEGER SUM, A SUM = 0 DO 3 J = 1, 100 SUM = SUM + A(J)

Assembly-language program to add 100 numbers:

ORG 100 LDA ADS STA PTR LDA NBR STA CTR CLA ADD PTR I ISZ PTR ISZ CTR BUN LOP STA SUM HLT HEX 150 HEX 0 DEC -100 HEX 0 HEX 0 ORG 150 DEC 75 . . . DEC 23 END / Origin of program is HEX 100 / Load first address of operand / Store in pointer / Load -100 / Store in counter / Clear AC / Add an operand to AC / Increment pointer / Increment counter / Repeat loop again / Store sum / Halt / First address of operands / Reserved for a pointer / Initial value for a counter / Reserved for a counter / Sum is stored here / Origin of operands is HEX 150 / First operand / Last operand / End of symbolic program

LOP,

ADS, PTR, NBR, CTR, SUM,

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Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

PROGRAMMING ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC OPERATIONS

Implementation of Arithmetic and Logic Operations
- Software Implementation - Implementation of an operation with a program using machine instruction set - Usually when the operation is not included in the instruction set - Hardware Implementation - Implementation of an operation in a computer with one machine instruction Software Implementation example: * Multiplication - For simplicity, unsigned positive numbers - 8-bit numbers -> 16-bit product

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Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

FLOWCHART OF A PROGRAM - Multiplication CTR - 8 P0 E0 X holds the multiplicand Y holds the multiplier P holds the product Example with four significant digits X = 0000 1111 Y = 0000 1011 0000 1111 0001 1110 0000 0000 0111 1000 1010 0101 E0 AC X cil EAC cil X AC CTR CTR + 1 0 =0 P 0000 0000 0000 1111 0010 1101 0010 1101 1010 0101

AC Y
cir EAC Y AC =0 =1 PP+X

CTR

Stop

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Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM - Multiplication ORG 100 CLE LDA Y CIR STA Y SZE BUN ONE BUN ZRO LDA X ADD P STA P CLE LDA X CIL STA X ISZ CTR BUN LOP HLT DEC -8 HEX 000F HEX 000B HEX 0 END

LOP,

ONE,

ZRO,

CTR, X, Y, P,

/ Clear E / Load multiplier / Transfer multiplier bit to E / Store shifted multiplier / Check if bit is zero / Bit is one; goto ONE / Bit is zero; goto ZRO / Load multiplicand / Add to partial product / Store partial product / Clear E / Load multiplicand / Shift left / Store shifted multiplicand / Increment counter / Counter not zero; repeat loop / Counter is zero; halt / This location serves as a counter / Multiplicand stored here / Multiplier stored here / Product formed here

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Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM - Double Precision Addition -

LDA AL ADD BL STA CL CLA CIL ADD AH ADD BH STA CH HLT

/ Load A low / Add B low, carry in E / Store in C low / Clear AC / Circulate to bring carry into AC(16) / Add A high and carry / Add B high / Store in C high

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Programming Arithmetic and Logic Operations

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAM - Logic and Shift Operations Logic operations

- BC instructions : AND, CMA, CLA - Program for OR operation LDA A / Load 1st operand CMA / Complement to get A STA TMP / Store in a temporary location LDA B / Load 2nd operand B CMA / Complement to get B AND TMP / AND with A to get A AND B CMA / Complement again to get A OR B Shift operations - BC has Circular Shift only - Logical shift-right operation - Logical shift-left operation CLE CLE CIR CIL - Arithmetic right-shift operation CLE SPA CME CIR / Clear E to 0 / Skip if AC is positive / AC is negative / Circulate E and AC

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Subroutines

SUBROUTINES
Subroutine - A set of common instructions that can be used in a program many times. - Subroutine linkage : a procedure for branching to a subroutine and returning to the main program Example
Loc. 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 10A 10B 10C 10D 10E 10F 110 ORG 100 LDA X BSA SH4 STA X LDA Y BSA SH4 STA Y HLT HEX 1234 HEX 4321 HEX CIL CIL CIL CIL AND BUN HEX END 0 / Main program / Load X / Branch to subroutine / Store shifted number / Load Y / Branch to subroutine again / Store shifted number

X, Y, SH4,

/ Subroutine to shift left 4 times / Store return address here / Circulate left once / Circulate left fourth time / Set AC(13-16) to zero / Return to main program / Mask operand

MSK,

MSK SH4 I FFF0

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Subroutines

SUBROUTINE PARAMETERS AND DATA LINKAGE

Linkage of Parameters and Data between the Main Program and a Subroutine - via Registers - via Memory locations - .

Example: Subroutine performing LOGICAL OR operation; Need two parameters

Loc. 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 20A 20B 20C 20D 20E 20F 210 ORG 200 LDA X BSA OR HEX 3AF6 STA Y HLT HEX 7B95 HEX 0 HEX 0 CMA STA TMP LDA OR I CMA AND TMP CMA ISZ OR BUN OR I HEX 0 END / Load 1st operand into AC / Branch to subroutine OR / 2nd operand stored here / Subroutine returns here / 1st operand stored here / Result stored here / Subroutine OR / Complement 1st operand / Store in temporary location / Load 2nd operand / Complement 2nd operand / AND complemented 1st operand / Complement again to get OR / Increment return address / Return to main program / Temporary storage

X, Y, OR,

TMP,

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Subroutines

SUBROUTINE - Moving a Block of Data BSA MVE HEX 100 HEX 200 DEC -16 HLT HEX 0 LDA MVE I STA PT1 ISZ MVE LDA MVE I STA PT2 ISZ MVE LDA MVE I STA CTR ISZ MVE LDA PT1 I STA PT2 I ISZ PT1 ISZ PT2 ISZ CTR BUN LOP BUN MVE I ---/ Main program / Branch to subroutine / 1st address of source data / 1st address of destination data / Number of items to move / Subroutine MVE / Bring address of source / Store in 1st pointer / Increment return address / Bring address of destination / Store in 2nd pointer / Increment return address / Bring number of items / Store in counter / Increment return address / Load source item / Store in destination / Increment source pointer / Increment destination pointer / Increment counter / Repeat 16 times / Return to main program

MVE,

LOP,

Fortran subroutine
SUBROUTINE MVE (SOURCE, DEST, N) DIMENSION SOURCE(N), DEST(N) DO 20 I = 1, N 20 DEST(I) = SOURCE(I) RETURN END

PT1, PT2, CTR,

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Input Output Program

INPUT OUTPUT PROGRAM

Program to Input one Character(Byte) CIF, SKI BUN CIF INP OUT STA CHR HLT -/ Check input flag / Flag=0, branch to check again / Flag=1, input character / Display to ensure correctness / Store character / Store character here

CHR,

Program to Output a Character COF, LDA CHR SKO BUN COF OUT HLT HEX 0057 / Load character into AC / Check output flag / Flag=0, branch to check again / Flag=1, output character / Character is "W"

CHR,

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Input Output Program

CHARACTER MANIPULATION
Subroutine to Input 2 Characters and pack into a word

IN2, FST,

-SKI BUN INP OUT BSA BSA SCD, SKI BUN INP OUT BUN

/ Subroutine entry FST / Input 1st character SH4 SH4 SCD / Input 2nd character IN2 I / Return / Logical Shift left 4 bits / 4 more bits

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Input Output Program

PROGRAM INTERRUPT
Tasks of Interrupt Service Routine
- Save the Status of CPU Contents of processor registers and Flags - Identify the source of Interrupt Check which flag is set - Service the device whose flag is set (Input Output Subroutine) - Restore contents of processor registers and flags - Turn the interrupt facility on - Return to the running program Load PC of the interrupted program

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Input Output Program

INTERRUPT SERVICE ROUTINE

Loc. 0 1 100 101 102 103 104 200 ZRO, BUN SRV CLA ION LDA X ADD Y STA Z STA SAC CIR STA SE SKI BUN NXT INP OUT STA PT1 I ISZ PT1 SKO BUN EXT LDA PT2 I OUT ISZ PT2 LDA SE CIL LDA SAC ION BUN ZRO I / Return address stored here / Branch to service routine / Portion of running program / Turn on interrupt facility / Interrupt occurs here / Program returns here after interrupt / Interrupt service routine / Store content of AC / Move E into AC(1) / Store content of E / Check input flag / Flag is off, check next flag / Flag is on, input character / Print character / Store it in input buffer / Increment input pointer / Check output flag / Flag is off, exit / Load character from output buffer / Output character / Increment output pointer / Restore value of AC(1) / Shift it to E / Restore content of AC / Turn interrupt on / Return to running program / AC is stored here / E is stored here / Pointer of input buffer / Pointer of output buffer

SRV,

NXT,

EXT,

SAC, SE, PT1, PT2,