Overpressure

Prediction, Detection and Consequences

Training course

Module 2
Quantifiable Pressure Detection

Key Terms
Overburden Gradient DxC Normal Compaction Trend Cutback Shift Eaton Fracture Pressure Daines Poissons Ratio

Overburden

Overburden Pressure
This equation forms basis of all pressure engineering

S P

S P
v

S = Overburden stress

P = Pore pressure

sv = Effective vertical
stress

Terzaghi model

Subsurface Pressure Trends

Log Response for Normal Shale Compaction

Applicable Lithologies
Best Indications - Shales / Claystones
Low Permeability, affected by compaction. Small matrix particles retard pore fluid flow. Allows part of overburden to be supported by the pore fluid.

Poor Indications - Sands, Silts, Limestones, Dolomites

Poor pressure trap when compacted. LS / Dol - Dependent on solution and chemical processes.

Formation Pressure Profile

Typical North Sea Formation Density Figures

SG Eocene
Palaeocene Cretaceous Jurassic/Triassic

PPG 20.36
18.44 20.36 20.28

PSI/FT 1.06
0.96 1.06 1.05

2.44
2.21 2.44 2.43

N. Sea Default

2.30

19.19

1.0
PPG to PSI/FT = PPG x 0.052

SG to PPG = SG x 8.345

Overburden Calculations # 1
The calculation of OBG is a 3 stage process
First, an interval overburden is calculated which is the total mass of sediments within an interval. (Si) Secondly, a total overburden is calculated for a given point which is the sum of all intervals above that point.(Si)

Thirdly, the Overburden Gradient is calculated which is the Total Overburden per unit depth. (So)

Overburden Calculations # 2
Density Sources For Overburden Calculations
LWD or Wireline Formation Density LWD or Wireline Sonic Calculated Density (Sonic log transit times are Calculated from the AGIP formula) SDL Measured Shale Density

Overburden Calculations - Formula

Si = b x 0.433 x DI Where Si = Interval Overburden in PSI b = Interval density in SG 0.433 = Conversion Constant DI = Depth of interval in Feet So = (Si) / D Where So = Overburden Gradient in PSI/FT Si = Cumulative Si D = Vertical Depth

Overburden Calculation Question 1

A rig has an air gap of 98 ft and a water depth of 348 ft. What is the Overburden Gradient at the sea bed? Give your answer in psi/ft, ppg-EMW and SG. The density of sea water is 1.04 SG.

Overburden Calculation Answer Q1

Two intervals exist, air and water. Given that air has a negligible density, then Si has to be calculated for the water only. Using: Si = b x 0.433 x DI, then Si = 1.04 x 0.433 x 348 = 157 psi So is calculated for the whole interval (air and water). Using: So = (Si) / D So = 157 / 446 = 0.35 psi/ft 0.351 psi/ft = 6.75 ppg Emw = 0.81 SG
Psi/ft / 0.052 = ppg Ppg / 8.345 = SG

Overburden Calculation Question 2

A rig has an air gap of 98 ft and a water depth of 348 ft, the well has been drilled to a depth of 1000 ft. Calculate the overburden for the drilled interval(in psi)? Also calculate the Overburden Gradient at TD?
The density of sea water is 1.04 SG. Average formation density is 1.8 SG

Overburden Calculation Answer Q2

The drilled interval is 554 ft and has a density of 1.8 SG. Using: Si = b x 0.433 x DI, then Si = 1.8 x 0.433 x 554 = 432 psi So is calculated for the whole interval (air, water & rock). Using: So = (Si) / D So = (157 + 432) / 1000 = 0.59 psi/ft 0.59 psi/ft = 11.35 ppg Emw = 1.36 SG
Psi/ft / 0.052 = ppg Ppg / 8.345 = SG

Overburden Calculations from Sonic Logs

If actual density data is not available then it can be calculated from Sonic Transit times. Sonic Transit time data is often available more readily and for more hole sections eg top hole. Always use density data if available.

AGIP Formula
b = 2.75 2.11 ((ET 47) / (ET + 200))
For unconsolidated formations

b = 3.28 (ET / 89)

For consolidated formations

Where: b = Formation density in SG ET = Sonic Transit time in sec/ft

Gaps in Sonic Data

If gaps exist in sonic data, it is possible to extrapolate between existing data. Remember near surface (where data is often missing) the sonic values become high as the formation becomes less compacted.

Dc Exponent

DEVELOPMENT OF THE DRILLING RATE EQUATION

Drilling rate is a function of the following parameters Rotary Speed Weight on Bit Hydraulics Tooth Efficiency Differential Pressure Overburden Pressure Pore Pressure Drillstring Effects / Torque Matrix Strength Lithology

Rotary Speed
Theoretically Rotary Speed would be directly proportional to Drill Rate. In Practice this is not so and the relationship is none linear. - Imperfect hole cleaning due to overbalance (chip hold down effect) - Insufficient circulation rates

Weight on Bit
Includes variations in bit size, tooth shape / distribution, actual WOB and threshold weight. Threshold weight is the minimum weight at which the bit will commence to drill. Soft formation can be drilled by jetting action alone i.e. zero weight. Again as for RPM as WOB increases the initially linear relationship with ROP is diverged from due to insufficient hole cleaning

Tooth Efficiency
Efficiency of the original cutting structure The minimum effective cutting structure The rate at which the bit will lose its efficiency
A dull bit can mask changes in drilled formation.

Hydraulics
Pump pressure Nozzle size Nozzle type Mud rheology
If too little hydraulic action is applied then bottom hole cleaning will be reduced. Excessive hydraulic action will increase jetting action

Differential Pressure
Difference between mud hydrostatic and formation pressure ie Overbalance Affects hole cleaning, a high Differential pressure tends to hold cuttings to the bottom of the well.

Overburden Pressure
Increased depth of burial results in increased compaction, and hence increased compressive strength. This results in a slow decrease in bit performance with depth.

Pore Pressure
Drill rate increase with pore pressure

Drillstring Effects
Changes in Torque, maybe even vibration, energy is spent vibrating and not drilling, hence lower ROP. BHA design

Matrix Strength
Other wise known as Drillability Resistance of formation to failure or chipping

Rock Bits Drill by Impact Fracturing

Lithology
Matrix strength varies with rock type, and so lithology changes may considerably affect ROP.

Drilling Rate Equations

D Exponent
Drillability Exponent

R = ROP (ft/hr) N = RPM W = WOB (lbs) D = Bit Size (ins)

R ) 60N d= 12W log 10 ( 6 ) 10 D log 10 (

d exponent is not compensated for mud weight, SPP (ie hydraulics), and bit wear. These variables should therefore be kept as constant as possible.

Dc Exponent
Corrected D Exponent
dc = modified d Exponent MW1 = Normal Hydrostatic Pressure MW2 = Mud Weight (pref. ECD) Pn = MW1

MW 1 xd dc = MW 2
or

Pn dc = d x ECD

Either ppg or SG

DxC Calculation
Given the following information calculate the DxC. Assume you are drilling a well in the North Sea. ROP = 50 ft/hr RPM = 40 WOB = 10 Klbs Hole Size = 12.25 ECD = 10.0 ppg

DxC Answer
Firstly Calculate D Exponent, use:
R ) 60N d= 12W ( ) log 10 6 10 D log 10 (

This gives a D Exponent of 0.84. Correcting to DxC, use: Pn dc = d x ECD Gives a DxC of 0.73 Note: DxC is unitless

DxC Limitations
Where the overbalance is very high the correction to the D exponent is large, values become low and vary little. Dc is a valid indicator of undercompaction in impermeable, but porous formations, undergoing increasing compaction with depth. So use for Shales, clays, arg. siltstones, calc. claystones.

DxC Limitations #2
Does not show trend is sand (grain supported) Siltstones may or may not be grain supported, perhaps grading from one to the other. Carbonate deposits, such as limestone stringers shift trend to right, but also may be seal to overpressured zone. Calcareous claystones shift trend to right, % of calcareousness affecting degree of shift. (compare to calcimetry results)

Schematic DxC Response

DxC Limitations #3
Equations are based on rock bits, not more modern PDC bits etc. Equations do not allow for changes in hardness and abrasiveness in lithology. It assumes for example that all claystones are uniform The use of mud motors or turbines and the affect they have on drillability is not factored into the equation In high angle wells, energy dissipation alters with much more energy being used to overcome well trajectory / drillstring component interaction. Eg the driller may show 40 Klbs WOB, but only 10 Klb gets to the bit

DxC Response to Bit Wear and Type

Use of DxC #1
Dont use instantaneous values for calculation, average to 1 ft or 0.5 m. Start recording data as soon as possible ie Spud. Values to start with will be for soft surface rocks. But this ensures you will get data for the start of compacted strata at around 1000 ft (offshore). Display on a condensed scale 1:2000 to 1:5000 Use a linear vertical scale and a logarithmic horizontal scale.

Use of DxC #2
It may be easier to spot trends if individual data points are plotted opposed to curves. Use TVD if possible. Use lithology / gamma to base analysis on areas of claystone.

Use of DxC
Resistivity
0.2 2

TVD
0.2

D Exponent
2

Compact, linear vertical scale Logarithmic horizontal scale

13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 1800

Resistivity
0.2 2

TVD
0.2

D Exponent
2

Quantitative Pore Pressure Analysis

Three phases are required to allow pore pressure estimates from DxC data.

1 Shifting of the DxC 2 Fitting of a Normal Compaction Trend (NCT) 3 Production and fitting of overlays*
*
Overlays are best calculated by PC, we shall only calculate actual pore pressure estimates by hand. The principal is the same.

DxC Trend Shifting

Normal Compaction Trends

DxC trend should increase with depth. (as will Resistivity and Density) Trend shift to left, in lower half of plot, indicates increase in undercompaction and therefore, overpressure.

Overlay Calculation
1 2 Overlays are dependent on position of NCT. Two main methods exist Ratio Eaton
In both methods Dc normal is the NCT value at that depth. This would represent the DxC value if pore pressure was normal at this depth. Any deviations may be overpressure.

Ratio Method
Use formula: Where: Po = actual pore fluid pressure Pn = normal pore pressure dco = observed dc exponent dcn = dc exponent from normal trend
dco Po = Pn x dcn

Eaton Method
The Eaton method is more widely used and more accurate. Requires Overburden Gradient. Can be used for DxC, Sonic and Resistivity data (Differing forms of equation for each)

Eaton Formula

P = So ((So Pn) (Dco / Dcn) )

1.2

Where: P = Formation Pressure So = Overburden Pressure Pn = Normal Pore Pressure Dco = DxC Observed Dcn = DxC from NCT

Note the 1.2 is the beta factor and may change Note units are psi/ft, ppg or SG for pressures

b Exponent
The b exponent value of 1.2 is not fixed. If a more accurate figure is available use it. Using the Eaton equation, if the actual pore pressure is known, from a kick or RFT then a more accurate figure may be back calculated. Also using this same principal if b is taken as correct and the actual formation pressure is known the Dcn can be recalculated.

Pore Pressure Calculation using Dxc / Eaton

1 2 3 4

Given that this well is vertical the formation is shale and no shifts are required to the DxC Using the DxC Trendline graph draw an NCT onto the graph. At a depth of 1500 ft estimate values for Dco and Dcn Given that the OBG is 1.0 psi/ft at this depth what is the pore pressure here? Give your answer in ppg EMW.

Pore Pressure Calculation - Answer

Answers may vary (slightly) 1 Draw trendline 2 This gives Dco of 1.8, Dcn is 1.2 at this depth 3 Use the Eaton Equation: 1.2 P = So ((So Pn) (Dco / Dcn) ) 1.2 4 P = 1 ((1-0.45) (1.2 / 1.8) ) = 0.66 psi/ft 5 12.7 ppg EMW
(0.66

/ 0.052)

Fracture Pressure
Knowledge of the magnitude of formation fracture gradients is vital, especially when drilling into an abnormally pressured zone. Formation fracture gradient determines the maximum allowable mud weight that can be used (after incorporating an operational safety factor).

Mechanism of Formation Fracture

A formation can be made to fracture by the application of fluid pressure to overcome the least line of resistance within the rock structure. Normally fractures will be propagated in a direction perpendicular to the least principal stress. Which of these three stresses is the least can be predicted by the fault activity in the area.

Stress Planes in Rock Formation

Leak-Off Test
Pump Off Leak-off Initial Shut-in Pressure Minimum Horizontal Stress (Sb)

Fluid Compression 0 Pressure 10 Shut-in Time (Minutes) Record every minute for 20 minutes or until pressure stabilizes. 20

Linear Increase

Pre-existing Fractures Opened by ECD

Volume Pumped

Fracture Pressure Estimates Whilst Drilling

A L.O.T / F.I.T only gives you a value for Fracture pressure at the shoe. As drilling continues down through new formations the Fracture Pressure will alter depending on lithology, faults, fractures etc. Where Fracture Pressure is critical i.e. on overpressured wells where you need to keep the mud weight high, but dont want losses.

Fracture Pressure Graph

Graph shows 2 estimated fracture gradients, pore pressure and Overburden. Note the relationship between them in terms of magnitude.

Methods of Fracture Gradient

Hubbert and Willis Eaton Mathews and Kelly Anderson et al Daines

Daines
Daines states that there are two unequal horizontal stresses which must be overcome before fracturing occurs.
1 That caused by the weight of overlying sediments (h) 2 A superposed tectonic stress (T) Proof that this tectonic stress exists is evidenced by folding, faulting, etc, which rely on unequal stress states for their occurrence and maintenance.

Daines Formula
FP = T + ((S P)(( / 1- )) + P) Where: FP = Fracture Pressure = Poissons Ratio

T = Superimposed Tectonic Stress

S = Overburden Pressure P = Pore Pressure Units ppg EMW, SG or psi/ft

Superimposed Tectonic Stress

T is calculated from the first LOT on drilling.

It is regarded as being constant for the rest of the well.

T = LOT - ((S P)(( / 1- )) + P)

Poissons Ratio
Poissons Ratio Clay 0.17 0.50 0.2 0.21 Sandstone Poissons Ratio

very wet
Conglomerate Dolomite

coarse coarse cemented Fine medium poorly sorted Fossiliferous

Shale calcereous dolomitic siliceous silty sandy kerogenaceous Siltstone

0.05 0.10 0.03 0.06 0.24 0.01

Limestone
fine, medium medium calcarenitic porous styloitic Fossiliferous bedded fossils shaley 0.28 0.31 0.20 0.27 0.09 0.17 0.17 0.14 0.28 0.12 0.17 0.12 0.25 0.08

Fracture Gradient Calculation - Question

Use the Daines method. Calculate the Fracture Gradient at 7000 ft. The formation at the LOT was claystone. The formation at 7000 ft is siltstone.

Frac. Grad. Calc. Answer #1

Calculate T Use: T = LOT - ((S P)(( / 1- )) + P) LOT from graph = 9.5 ppg EMW Poissons Ratio at LOT = 0.17 Overburden at LOT = 11.0 ppg Pore Pressure at LOT = 9.0 ppg

T = 9.5 ((11 9)(0.17/1-0.17) + 9) = 0.09

Frac. Grad. Calc. Answer #2

Calculate Fracture Gradient Use: FP = T + ((S P)(( / 1- )) + P) Overburden at 7000 ft = 15.0 ppg EMW Pore Pressure at 7000 ft = 9.25 ppg EMW Poissons Ratio at 7000 ft = 0.08

T = 0.09
FP = 0.09 + ((15 9.25)((0.08/1 0.08) + 9.25) FP = 9.84 ppg EMW

End of Module Summary Key Terms

Overburden Gradient DxC Normal Compaction Trend Cutback Shift Eaton Fracture Pressure Daines Poissons Ratio