CHAPTER OUTLINE

Block diagram of a computer system

Basic components of a computer system using block
diagrams:
Cpu
Memory
Input and output unit
Evolution of microprocessor : 4,8,16,32 dan 64 byte
Nibble, byte, word dan longword
Fecthing and execution cycles.
Internal structure and basic operation of a microprocessor
(arithmetic and logic unit, control unit, register sets,
accumulator, condition code register, program counter, stack
pointer)
Bus system: data bus, address bus and control bus.
Microprocessor clock system
Examples of microprocessor: 8085,8086.


1
Introduction
A computer is a programmable machine that
receives input, stores and manipulates
data//information, and provides output in a useful
format.
3. I/O Unit

Input/output (I/O), refers to the communication between an
information processing system (such as a computer), and the
outside world possibly a human, or another information
processing system.
Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and
outputs are the signals or data sent from it
Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called
peripherals
On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices
like the keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the
display and printer. Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives and
optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices.
Computer networking is another form of I/O.
3
EVOLUTION OF MICROPROCESSOR
4
DATA SIZE

Nibble 4 bit


Byte 8 bit
Word 16 bit
Long word

32 bit
5
FETCHING & EXECUTION CYCLES
Fetching Cycles
The fetch cycle takes the instruction required
from memory, stores it in the instruction register,
and
moves the program counter on one so that it
points to the next instruction.
Execute cycle
The actual actions which occur during the
execute cycle of an instruction.
depend on both the instruction itself and the
addressing mode specified to be used to access
the data that may be required.
6
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION
Step 1
7
Instruction pointer (program counter) hold the address
of the next instruction to be fetch.
Step 2
8
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)
Step 3
9
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)
Step 4
10
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)
Step 5
11
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)
Step 6
12
FETCHING AN INSTRUCTION (cont.)
INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND BASIC OPERATION
OF MICROPROCESSOR


ALU


Register
Section
Control and timing
section
Address bus
Data bus
Control bus
13
Block diagram of a microprocessor
ARITHMETIC AND LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
The component that performs the arithmetic and
logical operations
the most important components in a microprocessor,
and is typically the part of the processor that is
designed first.
able to perform the basic logical operations (AND,
OR), including the addition operation.
The inclusion of inverters on the inputs enables the
same ALU hardware to perform the subtraction
operation (adding an inverted operand), and the
operations NAND and NOR.
14
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ALU
2 bits of ALU

4 bits of ALU 15
CONTROL UNIT
The circuitry that controls the flow of information
through the processor, and coordinates the
activities of the other units within it.
In a way, it is the "brain within the brain", as it
controls what happens inside the processor, which
in turn controls the rest of the PC.
On a regular processor, the control unit performs
the tasks of fetching, decoding, managing
execution and then storing results.
16
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF CONTROL UNIT

17
REGISTER SETS
The register section/array consists completely of
circuitry used to temporarily store data or program
codes until they are sent to the ALU or to the
control section or to memory.

The number of registers are different for any
particular CPU and the more register a CPU have
will result in easier programming tasks.

Registers are normally measured by the number of
bits they can hold, for example, an "8-bit register" or
a "32-bit register".
18
REGISTER IN MOTOROLA 68000
MICROPROCESSOR
SUPERVISOR STACK POINTER
USER STACK POINTER
USER VYTE SYSTEM BYTE
D0
D1
D2
D3
D4
D5
D6
D7
A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A7
PC
SR
31 16 15 8 7 0
31 16 15 8 7 0
15 8 7 0
DATA REGISTERS
ADDRESS REGISTERS
STACK POINTER
PROGRAM CONTER
STATUS REGISTER
19
ACCUMULATOR
a register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic
results are stored.
example for accumulator use is summing a list of
numbers.
The accumulator is initially set to zero, then each
number in turn is added to the value in the accumulator.
Only when all numbers have been added is the result
held in the accumulator written to main memory or to
another, non-accumulator, CPU register.

20
CONDITION CODE REGISTER (CCR)
an 8 bit register used to store the status of CPU,
such as carry, zero, overflow and half carry.
21

Flag Name Description
Z Zero flag Indicates that the result of a mathematical or logical operation was zero.
C Carry flag
Indicates that the result of an operation produced an answer greater
than the number of available bits. (This flag may also be set before a
mathematical operation as an extra operand to certain instructions, e.g.
"add with carry".)
X Extend flag
Masks the XIRQ request when set. It is set by the hardware and
cleared by the software as well is set by unmaskable XIRQ.
N Negative/ Sign flag
Indicates that the result of a mathematical operation is negative. In
some processors, the N and S flags have different meanings: the S flag
indicates whether a subtraction or addition has taken place, whereas
the N flag indicates whether the last operation result is positive or
negative.
V Overflow Flag
Indicates that the result of an operation has overflowed according to the
CPU's word representation, similar to the carry flag but for signed
operations.
I interrupts
Interrupts can be enabled or disabled by respectively setting or clearing
this flag. Modifying this flag may be restricted to programs executing in
supervisor mode
22
PROGRAM COUNTER (PC)
a 16 bit register, used to store the next
address of the operation code to be fetched
by the CPU.
Not much use in programming, but as an
indicator to user only.
Purpose of PC in a Microprocessor
to store address of tos (top of stack)
to store address of next instruction to be
executed.
count the number of instructions.
to store base address of the stack.
23
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF PC

24
STACK POINTER (SP)
The stack is configured as a data structure
that grows downward from high memory to
low memory.
At any given time, the SP holds the 16-bit
address of the next free location in the
stack.
The stack acts like any other stack when
there is a subroutine call or on an interrupt.
ie. pushing the return address on a jump,
and retrieving it after the operation is
complete to come back to its original
location.
25
BUS SYSTEM
a subsystem that transfers data between computer
components inside a computer or between
computers.
4 PCI Express bus card slots (from top to bottom: x4, x16, x1 and x16),
compared to a traditional 32-bit PCI bus card slot (very bottom).
26
BUS SYSTEM CONNECTION

27
DATA BUS
The data bus is 'bi-directional'
data or instruction codes from memory or
input/output.are transferred into the
microprocessor
the result of an operation or computation is sent
out from the microprocessor to the memory or
input/output.
Depending on the particular microprocessor,
the data bus can handle 8 bit or 16 bit data.
28
ADDRESS BUS
The address bus is 'unidirectional', over which the
microprocessor sends an address code to the
memory or input/output.
The size (width) of the address bus is specified by
the number of bits it can handle.
The more bits there are in the address bus, the
more memory locations a microprocessor can
access.
A 16 bit address bus is capable of addressing
65,536 (64K) addresses.
29
CONTROL BUS
The control bus is used by the microprocessor to
send out or receive timing and control signals in
order to coordinate and regulate its operation and
to communicate with other devices, i.e. memory or
input/output.
30
MICRO PROCESSOR CLOCK
Also called clock rate, the speed at which a microprocessor
executes instructions. Every computer contains an internal
clock that regulates the rate at which instructions are executed
and synchronizes all the various computer components.
The CPU requires a fixed number of clock ticks (or clock
cycles) to execute each instruction. The faster the clock, the
more instructions the CPU can execute per second. Clock
speeds are expressed in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz
((GHz).
Some microprocessors are superscalar, which means that
they can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle.
Like CPUs, expansion buses also have clock speeds. Ideally,
the CPU clock speed and the bus clock speed should be the
same so that neither component slows down the other. In
practice, the bus clock speed is often slower than the CPU
clock speed, which creates a bottleneck. This is why new local
buses, such as AGP, have been developed.

31
EXAMPLES OF MICRO PROCESSOR
Intel 8085
Intel 8086
32
8086
The 8086 is a 16-bit microprocessor
chip designed by Intel, which gave
rise to the x86 architecture;
development work on the 8086
design started in the spring of 1976
and the chip was introduced to the
market in the summer of 1978.
The Intel 8088, released in 1979,
was a slightly modified chip with an
external 8-bit data bus (allowing the
use of cheaper and fewer
supporting logic chips and is notable
as the processor used in the original
IBM PC.

33
8085
The Intel 8085 is an 8-bit
microprocessor introduced by Intel in
1977.
It was binary-compatible with the
more-famous Intel 8080 but required
less supporting hardware, thus
allowing simpler and less expensive
microcomputer systems to be built.

An Intel 8085AH processor.
Produced
From 1977 to
1990s
Common manufacturer(s)
Intel and
several others
Max. CPU clock rate 3,5 and 6 MHz
Instruction set pre x86
Package(s) 40 pin DIP
34