Introduction to Oracle SQL

Contents
1. Relational Databases and ER Models

2. SQL
3. The HR Database Schema in Oracle
4. Introducing SELECT Statement
The WHERE Clause
Sorting with ORDER BY

Selecting Data From Multiple Tables

Contents (2)
5. Selecting Data From Multiple Tables
Natural Joins
Join with USING Clause
Inner Joins with ON Clause
Left, Right and Full Outer Joins
Cross Joins

6. Nested SELECT Statements

7. Aggregating Data
Group Functions and GROUP BY

Contents (3)
8.

Oracle SQL Functions

9.

Oracle Data Types

10. Data Definition Language (DDL)

11. Inserting Data
12. Updating Data
13. Deleting Data

Relational Databases
Short Overview

Relational Database Concepts

The relational model consists of the following:
Collection of tables (called relations)
Set of operators to act on the relations
Data integrity for accuracy and consistency

Definition of a Database
A relational database is a collection of
relations (two-dimensional tables)
Database

Table Name: EMPLOYEES

Table Name: DEPARTMENTS

EMPLO
YEE_ID

FIRST_
NAME

LAST_NAME

EMAIL

DEPARTM
ENT_ID

DEPARTMENT_
NAME

MANAGER_ID

100

Svetlin

Nakov

XXX

10

IT

200

101

Rosen

Spasov

YYY

20

Sales

201

102

Danail

Alexiev

ZZZ

50

Finances

124

Entity Relationship Model

Create an entity relationship diagram from
business specifications or narratives
EMPLOYEE
#*
number
*
name
o
job title

assigned to

DEPARTMENT
#*
number
*
name
composed of o
location

Scenario
. . . Assign one or more employees to a
department . . .
. . . Some departments do not yet have
assigned employees . . .

Relating Multiple Tables

Each row of data in a table is uniquely
identified by a primary key (PK)
You can logically relate data from multiple
tables using foreign keys (FK)
Table Name: EMPLOYEES

Table Name: DEPARTMENTS

EMPLOY
EE_ID

FIRST_
NAME

LAST_NAME

DEPARTM
ENT_ID

DEPARTM
ENT_ID

DEPARTMENT_NAME

100

Svetlin

Nakov

80

10

IT

101

Rosen

Spasov

50

20

Sales

102

Danail

Alexiev

90

50

Finances

Primary key

Foreign key

Primary key

Database Terminology
Table Name: EMPLOYEES

Foreign key
column

Field
EMPLOYEE_ID

FIRST_NAME

LAST_NAME

SALARY

DEPART
MENT_ID

100

Mihail

Stoynov

24000

80

101

Miroslav

Nachev

17000

50

102

Danail

Alexiev

103

Radoslav

Ivanov

9000

60

104

Rosen

Spasov

6000

90

Primary key
column

Row

Column

90

Null value

Relational Databases
A relational database:
Can be accessed and modified by
executing Structured Query Language
(SQL) statements
Uses a set of operations to extract
subset of the data

Contains a collection of tables

Relationships are defined between the
tables

Communicating with a DB
SQL statement is
entered
SELECT
department_name
FROM departments

SQL statement is
sent to the database
Database

DEPARTMENT_NAME
IT
Sales
Finances

The result is returned

(usually as a table)

The Structured Query

Language (SQL)
Introduction

What is SQL?
Structured Query Language (SQL)
Declarative language for query and
manipulation of relational data

SQL consists of:

Data Manipulation Language (DML)
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

Data Definition Language (DDL)

CREATE, DROP, ALTER
GRANT, REVOKE

Entity Relationship (E/R)

Diagrams
The HR Database Schema in Oracle Express

The HR Database Schema in

Oracle 10g
LOCATIONS
PK

I1
I3
FK1,I2

STREET_ADDRESS
POSTAL_CODE
CITY
STATE_PROVINCE
COUNTRY_ID

EMPLOYEES

DEPARTMENTS

LOCATION_ID
PK

DEPARTMENT_ID

PK

EMPLOYEE_ID

FK1
FK2,I1

DEPARTMENT_NAME
MANAGER_ID
LOCATION_ID

I4
I4
U1

FIRST_NAME
LAST_NAME
EMAIL
PHONE_NUMBER
HIRE_DATE
JOB_ID
SALARY
COMMISSION_PCT
MANAGER_ID
DEPARTMENT_ID

FK3,I2

COUNTRIES
PK

COUNTRY_ID

FK1

COUNTRY_NAME
REGION_ID

JOB_HISTORY
PK,FK2,I2
PK

EMPLOYEE_ID
START_DATE

FK3,I3
FK1,I1

END_DATE
JOB_ID
DEPARTMENT_ID

FK2,I3
FK1,I1

JOBS
PK

JOB_ID

REGIONS
PK

REGION_ID
REGION_NAME

JOB_TITLE
MIN_SALARY
MAX_SALARY

SQL Language
Introducing SELECT Statement

Capabilities of SQL SELECT

Projection

Selection

Take some of the columns

Take some of the rows

Table 1

Table 1

Join
Combine
tables by
some
column

Table 1

Table 2

Basic SELECT Statement

SELECT *|{[DISTINCT] column|expression
[alias],...}
FROM table

SELECT identifies what columns

FROM identifies which table

SELECT Example
Selecting all departments
SELECT * FROM DEPARTMENTS
DEPARTM
ENT_ID

DEPARTMENT_NAME

MANAGER_ID

LOCATION_ID

10

Administration

200

1700

20

Marketing

201

1800

50

Shipping

124

1900

Selecting specific columns

SELECT
DEPARTMENT_ID,
LOCATION_ID
FROM DEPARTMENTS

DEPARTMENT_ID

LOCATION_ID

10

1700

20

1800

50

1900

Arithmetic Operations
Arithmetic operators are available:
+, -, *, /

Example:
SELECT LAST_NAME, SALARY, SALARY + 300
FROM EMPLOYEES

LAST_NAME

SALARY

SALARY + 300

King

24000

24300

Kochhar

17000

17300

De Haan

17000

17300

The null Value

A null is a value that is unavailable,
unassigned, unknown, or inapplicable
Not the same as zero or a blank space

Arithmetic expressions containing a null

value are evaluated to null
SELECT LAST_NAME, MANAGER_ID FROM EMPLOYEES
LAST_NAME

MANAGER_ID

King

(null)

Kochhar

100

De Haan

100

NULL is displayed as
empty space or as (null)

Column Alias
Renames a column heading
Useful with calculations
Immediately follows the column name
There is an optional AS keyword

Double quotation marks if contains spaces

SELECT LAST_NAME "Name", 12*SALARY AS
"Annual Salary" FROM EMPLOYEES
Name

Annual Salary

King

288000

Kochhar

204000

Concatenation Operator
Concatenates columns or character strings to
other columns
Is represented by two vertical bars (||)
Creates a resultant column that is a character
expression
SELECT LAST_NAME || JOB_ID AS "Employees"
FROM EMPLOYEES
Employees

KingAD_PRES
KochharAD_VP
De HaanAD_VP

Literal Character Strings

A literal is a character, a number, or a date
included in the SELECT list
Date and character literal values must be enclosed
within single quotation marks
Each character string is output once for each row
returned
SELECT LAST_NAME || ' is a ' || JOB_ID AS
"Employee Details" FROM EMPLOYEES
Employees
King is a AD_PRES
Kochhar is a AD_VP
De Haan is a AD_VP

Removing Duplicate Rows

The default display of queries is all rows,
including duplicate rows
DEPARTMENT_ID
90

SELECT DEPARTMENT_ID
FROM EMPLOYEES

90
60

...

Eliminate duplicate rows by using the

DISTINCT keyword in the SELECT clause
SELECT
DISTINCT DEPARTMENT_ID
FROM EMPLOYEES

DEPARTMENT_ID
90
60
...

UNION and INTERSECT

UNION combines the results from several
SELECT statements
The columns count and types should match
NAME

SELECT FIRST_NAME AS NAME

FROM EMPLOYEES
UNION
SELECT LAST_NAME AS NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES

Abel
Adam
Alana
Alberto
...

INTERSECT makes logical intersection of given

sets of records

Limiting the Rows Selected

Restrict the rows returned by using the WHERE
clause:
SELECT LAST_NAME,
DEPARTMENT_ID FROM
EMPLOYEES WHERE
DEPARTMENT_ID = 90

LAST_NAME

DEPARTMENT_ID

King

90

Kochhar

90

De Haan

90

More examples:
SELECT FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, JOB_ID FROM
EMPLOYEES WHERE LAST_NAME = 'Whalen'
SELECT LAST_NAME, SALARY FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE SALARY <= 3000

Other Comparison Conditions

Using BETWEEN operator to specify a range:
SELECT LAST_NAME, SALARY FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE SALARY BETWEEN 2500 AND 3000

Using IN / NOT IN operators to specify a set of

values:
SELECT FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, MANAGER_ID FROM
EMPLOYEES WHERE MANAGER_ID IN (100, 101, 201)

Using LIKE operator to specify a pattern:

SELECT FIRST_NAME FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE FIRST_NAME LIKE 'S%'

Other Comparison Conditions (2)

Checking for NULL value:
SELECT LAST_NAME, MANAGER_ID FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE MANAGER_ID IS NULL

Note: COLUMN=NULL is always false!

Using OR and AND operators:

SELECT LAST_NAME, JOB_ID, SALARY FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE SALARY >= 1000 AND JOB_ID LIKE '%MAN%'
SELECT LAST_NAME FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE COMMISSION_PCT IS NOT NULL
OR LAST_NAME LIKE '%S%'

Sorting with ORDER BY

Sort rows with the ORDER BY clause
ASC: ascending order, default
DESC: descending order
SELECT LAST_NAME,
HIRE_DATE FROM EMPLOYEES
ORDER BY HIRE_DATE

SELECT LAST_NAME,
HIRE_DATE FROM EMPLOYEES
ORDER BY HIRE_DATE DESC

LAST_NAME

HIRE_DATE

King

17-JUN-87

Whalen

17-SEP-87

Kochhar

21-SEP-89

LAST_NAME

HIRE_DATE

Zlotkey

29-JAN-00

Mourgos

16-NOV-99

Grant

24-MAY-99

SQL Language
Selecting Data From Multiple Tables

Data from Multiple Tables

Sometimes you need data from more than
one table:
LAST_NAME

DEPART
MENT_ID

DEPARTM DEPARTMENT_NAME
ENT_ID

King

90

90

Executive

Kochhar

90

20

Marketing

Fay

20

10

Administration

LAST_NAME

DEPARTMENT_NAME

King

Executive

Fay

Marketing

Kochhar

Executive

Cartesian Product
This will produce Cartesian product:
SELECT LAST_NAME, DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES, DEPARTMENTS

The result:
LAST_NAME

DEPARTMENT_NAME

King

Executive

King

Marketing

King

Administration

Kochhar

Executive

Kochhar

Marketing

..

..

Cartesian Product
A Cartesian product is formed when:
A join condition is omitted
A join condition is invalid
All rows in the first table are joined to all rows
in the second table

To avoid a Cartesian product, always include

a valid join condition

Types of Joins
Natural joins

Join with USING clause

Inner joins with ON clause
Left, right and full outer joins
Cross joins

Natural Join
The NATURAL JOIN combines the rows from
two tables that have equal values in all
matched by name columns
SELECT DEPARTMENT_ID, DEPARTMENT_NAME,
LOCATION_ID, CITY
FROM DEPARTMENTS NATURAL JOIN LOCATIONS
DEPARTM
ENT_ID

DEPARTMENT_NAME

LOCATION_ID

CITY

60

IT

1400

Southlake

50

Shipping

1500

San Francisco

10

Administration

1700

Seattle

90

Executive

1700

Seattle

...

...

...

...

Join with USING Clause

If several columns have the same names we can
limit the NATURAL JOIN to only one of them by
the USING clause:
SELECT E.EMPLOYEE_ID, E.LAST_NAME,
D.LOCATION_ID, D.DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES E JOIN DEPARTMENTS D
USING (DEPARTMENT_ID)
EMPLOYEE_ID

LAST_NAME

LOCATION_ID

DEPARTMENT_NAME

102

De Haan

1700

Executive

103

Hunold

1400

IT

104

Ernst

1400

IT

...

...

...

...

Inner Join with ON Clause

To specify arbitrary conditions or specify
columns to join, the ON clause is used
Such JOIN is called also INNER JOIN
SELECT E.EMPLOYEE_ID, E.LAST_NAME,
E.DEPARTMENT_ID, D.DEPARTMENT_ID, D.LOCATION_ID
FROM EMPLOYEES E JOIN DEPARTMENTS D
ON (E.DEPARTMENT_ID = D.DEPARTMENT_ID)
EMPLOYEE_ID

LAST_NAME

DEPARTM DEPARTM LOCATION_ID

ENT_ID
ENT_ID

200

Whalen

10

10

1700

201

Hartstein

20

20

1800

202

Fay

20

20

1800

INNER vs. OUTER Joins

The join of two tables returning only matched
rows is an inner join
A join between two tables that returns the
results of the inner join as well as unmatched
rows from the left (or right) table is a left (or
right) outer join
A join between two tables that returns the
results of an inner join as well as the results
of a left and right join is a full outer join

INNER JOIN
SELECT E.FIRST_NAME || ' ' || E.LAST_NAME AS
MANAGER_NAME, D.DEPARTMENT_ID, D.DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES E INNER JOIN DEPARTMENTS D
ON E.EMPLOYEE_ID=D.MANAGER_ID
MANAGER_NAME

DEPARTMENT_ID

DEPARTMENT_ NAME

Jennifer Whalen

10

Administration

Michael Hartstein

20

Marketing

Den Raphaely

30

Purchasing

Susan Mavris

40

Human Resources

Adam Fripp

50

Shipping

Alexander Hunold

60

IT

Hermann Baer

70

Public Relations

...

...

...

LEFT OUTER JOIN

SELECT E.FIRST_NAME || ' ' || E.LAST_NAME AS
MANAGER_NAME, D.DEPARTMENT_ID, D.DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES E LEFT OUTER JOIN DEPARTMENTS D
ON E.EMPLOYEE_ID=D.MANAGER_ID
MANAGER_NAME

DEPARTMENT_ID

DEPARTMENT_ NAME

Jennifer Whalen

10

Administration

Michael Hartstein

20

Marketing

Den Raphaely

30

Purchasing

Clara Vishney

(null)

(null)

Jason Mallin

(null)

(null)

Hazel Philtanker

(null)

(null)

Nanette Cambrault

(null)

(null)

...

...

...

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

SELECT E.FIRST_NAME || ' ' || E.LAST_NAME AS
MANAGER_NAME, D.DEPARTMENT_ID, D.DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES E RIGHT OUTER JOIN DEPARTMENTS D
ON E.EMPLOYEE_ID=D.MANAGER_ID
MANAGER_NAME

DEPARTMENT_ID

DEPARTMENT_ NAME

Jennifer Whalen

10

Administration

Michael Hartstein

20

Marketing

Den Raphaely

30

Purchasing

(null)

120

Treasury

(null)

130

Corporate Tax

(null)

140

Control And Credit

(null)

150

Shareholder Services

...

...

...

FULL OUTER JOIN

SELECT E.FIRST_NAME || ' ' || E.LAST_NAME AS
MANAGER_NAME, D.DEPARTMENT_ID, D.DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES E FULL OUTER JOIN DEPARTMENTS D
ON E.EMPLOYEE_ID=D.MANAGER_ID
MANAGER_NAME

DEPARTMENT_ID

DEPARTMENT_ NAME

Jennifer Whalen

10

Administration

Michael Hartstein

20

Marketing

...

...

...

Clara Vishney

(null)

(null)

Jason Mallin

(null)

(null)

...

...

...

(null)

150

Shareholder Services

...

...

...

Three-Way Joins
A three-way join is a join of three tables
SELECT E.EMPLOYEE_ID, CITY, DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES E
JOIN DEPARTMENTS D
ON D.DEPARTMENT_ID = E.DEPARTMENT_ID
JOIN LOCATIONS L
ON D.LOCATION_ID = L.LOCATION_ID

EMPLOYEE_ID

CITY

DEPARTMENT_ NAME

103

Southlake

IT

104

Southlake

IT

124

San Francisco

Administration

...

...

...

Cross Join
The CROSS JOIN clause produces the crossproduct of two tables
Same as a Cartesian product
Not often used
SELECT LAST_NAME, DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES CROSS JOIN DEPARTMENTS
LAST_NAME

DEPARTMENT_NAME

King

Executive

King

Marketing

King

Administration

Kochhar

Executive

..

..

Additional Conditions
You can apply additional conditions in the
WHERE clause:
SELECT E.EMPLOYEE_ID,
E.FIRST_NAME || ' ' || E.LAST_NAME AS NAME,
E.MANAGER_ID, E.DEPARTMENT_ID, D.DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES E JOIN DEPARTMENTS D ON
(E.DEPARTMENT_ID = D.DEPARTMENT_ID)
WHERE E.MANAGER_ID = 149
EMPLO
YEE_ID

NAME

MANAG
ER_ID

DEPARTME DEPARTMENT_NAME
NT_ID

174

Ellen Abel

149

80

Sales

175

Alyssa Hutton

149

80

Sales

...

...

...

...

...

SQL Language
Nested SELECT Statements

Nested SELECT Statements

SELECT statements can be nested in the
where clause
SELECT FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE SALARY =
(SELECT MAX(SALARY) FROM EMPLOYEES)
SELECT FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME, SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE DEPARTMENT_ID IN
(SELECT DEPARTMENT_ID FROM DEPARTMENTS
WHERE DEPARTMENT_NAME='Accounting')

Note: Always prefer joins to nested SELECT

statements (better performance)

Using the EXISTS operator

Using the EXISTS operator in SELECT
statements
Find all employees that have worked in the
past in the department #110
SELECT FIRST_NAME, LAST_NAME FROM EMPLOYEES E
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT EMPLOYEE_ID FROM JOB_HISTORY JH
WHERE DEPARTMENT_ID = 110 AND
JH.EMPLOYEE_ID=E.EMPLOYEE_ID)

SQL Language
Aggregating Data

Group Functions
Group functions operate on sets of rows to
give one result per group
EMPLOYEE_ID

SALARY

100

24000

101

17000

102

17000

103

9000

104

6000

...

...

MAX(SALARY)
24000

Group Functions in SQL

COUNT(*) count of the selected rows

SUM(column) sum of the values in given

column from the selected rows
AVG(column) average of the values in
given column
MAX(column) the maximal value in given
column
MIN(column) the minimal value in given
column

AVG() and SUM() Functions

You can use AVG() and SUM() for numeric
data types
SELECT AVG(SALARY), MAX(SALARY),
MIN(SALARY), SUM(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE JOB_ID LIKE '%REP%'
AVG(SALARY)

MAX(SALARY)

MIN(SALARY)

SUM(SALARY)

8272.72

11500

6000

273000

MIN() and MAX() Functions

You can use MIN() and MAX() for any data
type (number, date, varchar, ...)
SELECT MIN(HIRE_DATE), MAX(HIRE_DATE)
FROM EMPLOYEES
MIN(HIRE_DATE)

MAX(HIRE_DATE)

17-JUN-1987

29-JAN-00

Displaying the first and last employee's name

in alphabetical order:
SELECT MIN(LAST_NAME), MAX(LAST_NAME)
FROM EMPLOYEES

The COUNT() Function

COUNT(*) returns the number of rows in the
result table
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE DEPARTMENT_ID = 50

COUNT(*)
5

COUNT(expr) returns the number of rows with

non-null values for the expr
SELECT COUNT(COMMISSION_PCT)
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE DEPARTMENT_ID = 80

COUNT(COMMI
SION_PCT)
3

Group Functions and Nulls

Group functions ignore null values in the
column
SELECT AVG(COMMISSION_PCT) FROM EMPLOYEES
AVG(COMMISSION_PCT)
.2229

If each null value in COMMISSION_PCT is

considered as 0 and is included in the
calculation, the result will be 0.0425

SQL Language
Group Functions and the
GROUP BY Statement

Creating Groups of Data

EMPLOYEES
DEPARTMENT_ID

SALARY

50

3100

50

3000

50

2600

50

11300
SUM(SALARY)

2600

DEPART
MENT_ID

20

4400

50

11300

20

13000

20

23400

20

6000

40

16500

40

6500

110

20300

40

10000

...

...

110

12000

110

8300

...

...

23400

16500
20300

The GROUP BY Statement

We can divide rows in a table into smaller
groups by using the GROUP BY clause
The syntax:
SELECT
FROM
[WHERE
[GROUP
[ORDER

<columns>, <group_function(column)>
<table>
<condition>]
BY <group_by_expression>]
BY <columns>

The <group_by_expression> is a list of

columns

The GROUP BY Statement

Example of grouping data:
SELECT DEPARTMENT_ID, SUM(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEES
GROUP BY DEPARTMENT_ID
DEPARTMENT_ID

SUM(SALARY)

100

51600

30

24900

(null)

7000

...

...

The GROUP BY column does not have to be in

the SELECT list

Grouping by Several Columns

EMPLOYEES
DEPART
MENT_ID

JOB_ID

SALARY

20

AD_ASST

4400

20

MK_MAN

13000

20

MK_MAN

12000

30

PU_CLERK

2500

30

PU_CLERK

2500

30

PU_CLERK

2500

30

PU_MAN

11000

30

PU_MAN

11500

30

PU_MAN

10000

30

PU_MAN

11000

...

...

...

4400

EMPLOYEES

25000

DPT_ID

JOB_ID

SUM(SA
LARY)

20

AD_ASST

4400

20

MK_MAN

25000

30

PU_CLERK

7500

30

PU_MAN

43500

...

...

...

7500

43500

Grouping by Several Columns

Example
Example of grouping data by several
columns:
SELECT DEPARTMENT_ID, JOB_ID,
COUNT(EMPLOYEE_ID), SUM(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEES
GROUP BY DEPARTMENT_ID, JOB_ID
ORDER BY SUM(SALARY) DESC
DEPARTMENT_ID

JOB_ID

COUNT(
EMPLOYEE_ID)

SUM(SALARY)

80

SA_REP

29

243500

50

SH_CLERK

20

64300

80

SA_MAN

61000

...

...

...

...

Illegal Queries
This SELECT statement is illegal
SELECT DEPARTMENT_ID, COUNT(LAST_NAME)
FROM EMPLOYEES

Can not combine columns with groups

functions unless when using GROUP BY

This SELECT statement is also illegal

SELECT DEPARTMENT_ID, AVG(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEES
WHERE AVG(SALARY) > 8000
GROUP BY DEPARTMENT_ID;

Can not use WHERE for group functions

Using GROUP BY with HAVING

Clause
HAVING works like WHERE but is used for the
grouping functions
SELECT DEPARTMENT_ID,
COUNT(EMPLOYEE_ID), AVG(SALARY)
FROM EMPLOYEES
GROUP BY DEPARTMENT_ID
HAVING COUNT(EMPLOYEE_ID) BETWEEN 3 AND 6
DEPARTMENT_ID

COUNT(EMPLOYEE_ID)

AVG(SALARY)

100

8600

30

4150

90

19333.33

60

5760

Using Grouping Functions and

Table Joins
We can apply grouping function from joined
tables
SELECT COUNT(*) AS EMPS, DEPARTMENT_NAME
FROM EMPLOYEES E JOIN DEPARTMENTS D
ON E.DEPARTMENT_ID=D.DEPARTMENT_ID
WHERE
HIRE_DATE BETWEEN '1991-1-1' AND '1997-12-31'
GROUP BY DEPARTMENT_NAME
HAVING COUNT(*) > 5
ORDER BY EMPS DESC
EMPS

DEPARTMENT_NAME

19

Shipping

15

Sales

Oracle Data Types

Overview

Oracle Data Types

NUMBER integer number (up to 38 digits)
NUMBER(p, s) integer/real number of given
precision p and scale s
NUMBER(10, 2) fixed point real number

VARCHAR2(size) string of variable length up

to given size (locale specific)
VARCHAR2(50) string of length up to 50

Oracle Data Types (2)

DATE date between Jan 1, 4712 BC and

Dec 31, 9999 AD

TIMESTAMP date and time (year, month, day,
hour, minute, and seconds)
Precision can be defined

BLOB binary large data object, RAW data (up

to 128 TB)
Can contain photos, videos, etc.

CLOB, NCLOB character large data object (up

to 128 TB)

SQL Language
Data Definition Language (DDL)

Data Definition Language

Types of commands
Defining / editing objects
CREATE
ALTER

DROP

Creating Objects
CREATE / CREATE OR REPLACE commands
CREATE TABLE <name> (<fields
definitions>)
CREATE SEQUENCE <name>
CREATE VIEW <name> AS <select>
CREATE TABLE PERSONS (
PERSON_ID INTEGER NOT NULL,
NAME NVARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL,
CONSTRAINT PERSON_PK PRIMARY KEY(PERSON_ID)
)
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW PERSONS_TOP_10 AS
SELECT NAME FROM PERSONS WHERE ROWNUM <= 10

Modifying Objects
ALTER command
ALTER TABLE <name> <command>
ALTER
-- Add a foreign key constraint TOWN --> COUNTIRY
ALTER TABLE TOWN
ADD CONSTRAINT TOWN_COUNTRY_FK
FOREIGN KEY (COUNTRY_ID)
REFERENCES COUNTRY(ID) ENABLE
-- Add column COMMENT to the table PERSON
ALTER TABLE PERSONS ADD ("COMMENT" VARCHAR2(800))
-- Remove column COMMENT from the table PERSON
ALTER TABLE PERSONS DROP COLUMN "COMMENT"

Deleting Objects
DROP command
DROP TABLE <name>
DROP SEQUENCE <name>
DROP TRIGGER <name>

DROP INDEX <name>

DROP SEQUENCE SEQ_PERSON
DROP CONSTRAINT TRG_PERSON_INSERT
DROP TABLE PERSONS

SQL Language
Inserting Data in the Tables

Inserting Data
INSERT command
INSERT INTO <table> VALUES (<values>)
INSERT INTO <table>(<columns>) VALUES
(<values>)
INSERT INTO <table> SELECT <values>
INSERT INTO COUNTRY
VALUES ('1', 'Bulgaria', 'Sofia')
INSERT INTO COUNTRY(NAME, CAPITAL)
VALUES ('Bulgaria', 'Sofia')
INSERT INTO COUNTRY(COUNTRY_ID, NAME, CAPITAL)
SELECT NULL, COUNTRY, CAPITAL FROM CAPITALS

SQL Language
Updating Data in the Tables

Updating Data
UPDATE command
UPDATE <table> SET <column=expression>
WHERE <condition>
Note: Don't forget the WHERE clause!
UPDATE PERSONS
SET NAME = 'Updated Name'
WHERE PERSON_ID = 1

UPDATE EMPLOYEES
SET SALARY = SALARY * 1.10
WHERE DEPARTMENT_ID = 3

Updating Joined Tables

Updating joined tables is done by nested
SELECT
UPDATE
(SELECT SALARY
FROM EMPLOYEES E INNER JOIN DEPARTMENTS D
ON E.DEPARTMENT_ID = D.DEPARTMENT_ID
WHERE D.NAME = 'Accounting')
SET SALARY = SALARY * 1.10

SQL Language
Deleting Data from the Tables

Deleting Data
Deleting rows from a table
DELETE FROM <table> WHERE
<condition>
DELETE FROM PERSONS WHERE PERSON_ID = 1
DELETE FROM PERSONS WHERE NAME LIKE 'S%'

Note: Dont forget the WHERE clause!

Delete all rows from a table at once

TRUNCATE TABLE <table>
TRUNCATE TABLE PERSONS

Problems
1. What is SQL? What is DML? What is DDL? Recite the most
important SQL commands.

2. What is PL/SQL?
3. Start Oracle SQL Developer and connect to the database. Use
the HR user. Examine the major tables in the HR schema.
4. Write a SQL query to find all information about all department.
5. Write a SQL query to find all department names.
6. Write a SQL query to find the salary of each employee by
month, by day and hour. Consider that one month has 20
workdays and each workday has 8 work hours.

Problems (2)
7.

Write a SQL query to find the email addresses of each

employee. Consider that the mail domain is
mail.somecompany.com. Emails should look like
"bernst@mail.somecompany.com". The produced column
should be names "Full Email Address".

8.

Write a SQL query to find all different salaries that are paid to
the employees.

9.

Write a SQL query to find all information about the employees

whose position is "AC_MGR" (Accounting Manager).

10. Write a SQL query to find the names of all employees whose
first name starts with "Sa".

Problems (3)
11. Write a SQL query to find the names of all employees whose
last name contains the character sequence "ei".

12. Write a SQL query to find the names of all employees whose
salary is in the range [3000...5000].
13. Write a SQL query to find the names of all employees whose
salary is 2500, 4000 or 5000.
14. Write a SQL query to find all locations that has no state or
post code defined.
15. Write a SQL query to find all employees that are paid more
than 10000. Order them in decreasing order by salary.

Problems (4)
16. Write a SQL query to find to top 5 best paid employees.
17. Write a SQL query to find all departments and the town of their
location. Use natural join.
18. Write a SQL query to find all departments and the town of their
location. Use join with USING clause.
19. Write a SQL query to find all departments and the town of their
location. Use inner join with ON clause.
20. Write a SQL query to find all the locations and the
departments for each location along with the locations that do
not have department. User right outer join. Rewrite the query
to use left outer join.

Problems (5)
21. Write a SQL query to find the manager of each department.
22. Write a SQL query to find the location of each department
manager.
23. Write a SQL query to find the names of all employees from the
departments "Sales" and "Finance" whose hire year is
between 1995 and 2000.
24. Write a SQL query to find the names and salaries of the
employees that take the minimal salary in the company. Use
nested SELECT statement.
25. Write a SQL query to find the names and salaries of the
employees that take a salary that is up to 10% higher than the
minimal salary for the company.

Problems (6)
26. Write a SQL query to find the average salary in the "Sales"
department.

27. Write a SQL query to find the number of employees in the

"Sales" department.
28. Write a SQL query to find the number of all locations where
the company has an office.
29. Write a SQL query to find the number of all departments that
has manager.
30. Write a SQL query to find the number of all departments that
has no manager.
31. Write a SQL query to find all departments and the average
salary for each of them.

Problems (7)
32. Write a SQL query to find the count of all employees in each
department and for each manager.

33. Write a SQL query to find all managers that have exactly 5
employees. Display their names and the name and location of
their department.
34. Write a SQL query to find all departments along with their
managers. For departments that do not have manager display
"(no manager)".
35. Write a SQL query to find the names of all employees whose
last name is exactly 5 characters long.
36. Write a SQL query to print the current date and time in the
format "day.month.year hour:minutes:seconds".

Problems (8)
37. Write a SQL statement to create a table USERS. Users should
have username, password, full name and last login time.
Choose appropriate data types for the fields of the table.
Define a primary key column with a primary key constraint.
Define a sequence for populating the primary key. Define a
trigger to update the primary key column value before
inserting a record.
38. Write a SQL statement to create a view that displays the users
from the USERS table that have been in the system today. Test
if the view works correctly.

Problems (9)
39. Write a SQL statement to create a table GROUPS. Groups
should have unique name (use unique constraint). Define
primary key and a sequence and a trigger for populating it.
40. Write a SQL statement to add a column GROUP_ID to the table
USERS. Fill some data in this new column and as well in the
GROUPS table. Write a SQL statement to add a foreign key
constraint between tables USERS and GROUPS.
41. Write SQL statements to insert several records in the USERS
and GROUPS tables.

Problems (10)
42. Write SQL statements to insert in the USER table the names of
all employees from the EMPLOYEES table. Combine the first
and last names as a full name. For user name use the email
column from EMPLOYEES. Use blank password.
43. Write a SQL statement that changes the password to NULL for
all USERS that have not been in the system since 10.03.2006.

44. Write a SQL statement that deletes all users without

passwords (NULL or empty password).

Homework
1. Write a SQL query to display the average employee salary by
country.
2. Write a SQL query to display the average employee salary by
region.
3. Write a SQL query to display the country of each employee
along with his name and department city.
4. Write a SQL query to display the country where maximal
number of employees work.
5. Write a SQL query to display the number of managers for each
region and each country.
6. Define table WORKHOURS to store work reports for each
employee (date, task, hours, comments). Don't forget to define
automatically populated primary key (primary key constraint +
sequence + trigger).

Homework (2)
7.

Define foreign key between the tables WORKHOURS and

EMPLOYEE. Add additional column in the employee table if
needed.

8.

Write several SQL statements to fill some data in the

WORKHOURS table.

9.

Write a SQL query to find all the average work hours per week
for each country.

10. Write a SQL query to find all the departments where some
employee worked overtime (over 8 hours/day) during the last
week.
11. Write a SQL query to find all employees that have worked 3 or
more days overtime in the last week. Display their name,
location department and country.

Questions
&
Answers