Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • 73 views

    SP14 CS188 Lecture 3 - Informed Search

    Uploaded by

    imoptra143
    This document discusses informed search techniques for artificial intelligence problems. It introduces A* search, which combines the optimality of uniform cost search with heuristics to guide the search towards promising goals. A* is guaranteed to find the lowest-cost solution if the heuristic is admissible (optimistic) or consistent. Creating effective heuristics from relaxed versions of the problem is important for applying A* to real problems.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    SP14 CS188 Lecture 3 - Informed Search

    Uploaded by

    imoptra143
    73 views69 pages
    This document discusses informed search techniques for artificial intelligence problems. It introduces A* search, which combines the optimality of uniform cost search with heuristics to guide the search towards promising goals. A* is guaranteed to find the lowest-cost solution if the heuristic is admissible (optimistic) or consistent. Creating effective heuristics from relaxed versions of the problem is important for applying A* to real problems.

    Original Description:

    SP14 CS188 Lecture 3 -- Informed Search

    Original Title

    SP14 CS188 Lecture 3 -- Informed Search

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    This document discusses informed search techniques for artificial intelligence problems. It introduces A* search, which combines the optimality of uniform cost search with heuristics to guide the search towards promising goals. A* is guaranteed to find the lowest-cost solution if the heuristic is admissible (optimistic) or consistent. Creating effective heuristics from relaxed versions of the problem is important for applying A* to real problems.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    73 views69 pages

    SP14 CS188 Lecture 3 - Informed Search

    Uploaded by

    imoptra143
    This document discusses informed search techniques for artificial intelligence problems. It introduces A* search, which combines the optimality of uniform cost search with heuristics to guide the search towards promising goals. A* is guaranteed to find the lowest-cost solution if the heuristic is admissible (optimistic) or consistent. Creating effective heuristics from relaxed versions of the problem is important for applying A* to real problems.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    of 69

    CS 188: Artificial Intelligence

    Informed Search

    Instructors: Dan Klein and Pieter Abbeel


    University of California, Berkeley
    [These slides were created by Dan Klein and Pieter Abbeel for CS188 Intro to AI at UC Berkeley. All CS188 materials are available at

    Today
    Informed Search
    Heuristics
    Greedy Search
    A* Search

    Graph Search

    Recap: Search

    Recap: Search
    Search problem:

    States (configurations of the world)


    Actions and costs
    Successor function (world dynamics)
    Start state and goal test

    Search tree:
    Nodes: represent plans for reaching states
    Plans have costs (sum of action costs)

    Search algorithm:
    Systematically builds a search tree
    Chooses an ordering of the fringe (unexplored
    nodes)
    Optimal: finds least-cost plans

    Example: Pancake Problem

    Cost: Number of pancakes flipped

    Example: Pancake Problem

    Example: Pancake Problem


    State space graph with costs as weights
    4
    2

    3
    3

    4
    3

    4
    3

    2
    2

    2
    4
    3

    General Tree Search

    Action: flip top


    two
    Cost: 2

    Pathflip
    to all
    reach
    Action:
    fourgoal:
    Flip four,
    flip
    Cost:
    4
    three
    Total cost: 7

    The One Queue


    All these search algorithms
    are the same except for
    fringe strategies
    Conceptually, all fringes are
    priority queues (i.e. collections
    of nodes with attached
    priorities)
    Practically, for DFS and BFS,
    you can avoid the log(n)
    overhead from an actual
    priority queue, by using stacks
    and queues
    Can even code one

    Uninformed Search

    Uniform Cost Search


    Strategy: expand lowest path cost

    c1
    c2
    c3

    The good: UCS is complete and


    optimal!

    The bad:

    Explores options in every direction


    No information about goal location

    Start

    Goal

    [Demo: contours UCS empty (L3D1)]


    [Demo: contours UCS pacman small

    Video of Demo Contours UCS Empty

    Video of Demo Contours UCS Pacman


    Small Maze

    Informed Search

    Search Heuristics
    A heuristic is:
    A function that estimates how close a state is
    to a goal
    Designed for a particular search problem
    Examples: Manhattan distance, Euclidean
    distance for pathing

    10
    5
    11.2

    Example: Heuristic Function

    h(x)

    Example: Heuristic Function


    Heuristic: the number of the largest pancake that is still out of
    place
    3

    h(x)

    4
    3

    4
    4

    3
    4

    4
    3

    Greedy Search

    Example: Heuristic Function

    h(x)

    Greedy Search
    Expand the node that seems closest

    What can go wrong?

    Greedy Search

    Strategy: expand a node that you


    think is closest to a goal state

    Heuristic: estimate of distance to


    nearest goal for each state

    A common case:

    Best-first takes you straight to the


    (wrong) goal

    Worst-case: like a badly-guided DFS


    [Demo: contours greedy empty (L3D1)]
    [Demo: contours greedy pacman small

    Video of Demo Contours Greedy (Empty)

    Video of Demo Contours Greedy (Pacman


    Small Maze)

    A* Search

    A* Search

    UCS

    Greedy

    A*

    Combining UCS and Greedy


    Uniform-cost orders by path cost, or backward cost
    g(n)
    Greedy orders by goal proximity, or forward cost
    S
    h(n) 8
    1
    S
    h=6
    c
    h=7

    a
    h=5

    1
    1

    b
    h=6

    d
    h=
    2

    g=
    a
    1
    h=5

    h=1

    G
    h=0

    g=
    2
    h=6
    g=
    3
    h=7

    b
    c

    g=
    0
    h=6
    g=
    e
    9
    h=1
    g=
    d
    10
    h=2
    g=
    G 12
    h=0
    Example: Teg

    d g=
    4
    h=2
    g=
    G
    6
    h=0

    A* Search orders by the sum: f(n) = g(n) + h(n)

    When should A* terminate?


    Should we stop when we enqueue a goal?
    h=2

    2
    S

    h=3

    h=0

    h=1

    No: only stop when we dequeue a goal

    Is A* Optimal?
    h=6

    h=
    7

    h=0

    5
    What went wrong?
    Actual bad goal cost < estimated good goal cost
    We need estimates to be less than actual costs!

    Admissible Heuristics

    Idea: Admissibility

    Inadmissible (pessimistic) heuristics


    break optimality by trapping good
    plans on the fringe

    Admissible (optimistic) heuristics slow


    down bad plans but never outweigh
    true costs

    Admissible Heuristics
    A heuristic h is admissible (optimistic) if:

    where

    is the true cost to a nearest goal

    Examples:
    15

    Coming up with admissible heuristics is most of


    whats involved in using A* in practice.

    Optimality of A* Tree Search

    Optimality of A* Tree Search


    Assume:
    A is an optimal goal node
    B is a suboptimal goal node
    h is admissible
    Claim:
    A will exit the fringe before B

    Optimality of A* Tree Search: Blocking


    Proof:
    Imagine B is on the fringe
    Some ancestor n of A is on
    the fringe, too (maybe A!)
    Claim: n will be expanded
    before B
    1. f(n) is less or equal to
    f(A)

    Definition of fcost
    Admissibility of h
    h = 0 at a goal

    Optimality of A* Tree Search: Blocking


    Proof:
    Imagine B is on the fringe
    Some ancestor n of A is on
    the fringe, too (maybe A!)
    Claim: n will be expanded
    before B
    1. f(n) is less or equal to
    f(A)
    2. f(A) is less than f(B)

    B is suboptimal
    h = 0 at a goal

    Optimality of A* Tree Search: Blocking


    Proof:
    Imagine B is on the fringe
    Some ancestor n of A is on
    the fringe, too (maybe A!)
    Claim: n will be expanded
    before B
    1. f(n) is less or equal to
    f(A)
    2. f(A) is less than f(B)
    3. n expands before B
    All ancestors of A expand
    before B
    A expands before B

    Properties of A*

    Properties of A*
    UniformCost

    A*

    UCS vs A* Contours
    Uniform-cost expands equally
    in all directions
    Star
    t

    A* expands mainly toward the


    goal, but does hedge its bets
    to ensure optimality

    Star
    t

    Goal

    Goal

    [Demo: contours UCS / greedy / A*


    empty (L3D1)]

    Video of Demo Contours (Empty) -- UCS

    Video of Demo Contours (Empty) -Greedy

    Video of Demo Contours (Empty) A*

    Video of Demo Contours (Pacman Small


    Maze) A*

    Comparison

    Greedy

    Uniform Cost

    A*

    A* Applications

    A* Applications

    Video games
    Pathing / routing problems
    Resource planning problems
    Robot motion planning
    Language analysis
    Machine translation
    Speech recognition

    [Demo: UCS / A* pacman tiny maze


    (L3D6,L3D7)]

    Video of Demo Pacman (Tiny Maze)


    UCS / A*

    Video of Demo Empty Water Shallow/Deep Guess


    Algorithm

    Creating Heuristics

    Creating Admissible Heuristics


    Most of the work in solving hard search problems optimally
    is in coming up with admissible heuristics
    Often, admissible heuristics are solutions to relaxed
    problems, where new actions are available
    366
    15

    Inadmissible heuristics are often useful too

    Example: 8 Puzzle

    Start State

    Actions

    What are the states?


    How many states?
    What are the actions?
    How many successors from the start
    state?
    What should the costs be?

    Goal State

    8 Puzzle I
    Heuristic: Number of tiles
    misplaced
    Why is it8admissible?
    h(start) =
    This is a relaxed-problem
    heuristic

    Start State

    Goal State

    Average nodes
    expanded when the
    optimal path has
    4
    steps
    UCS

    112

    8
    steps
    6,300

    12
    steps

    3.6 x
    6
    Statistics10
    from
    Andrew

    8 Puzzle II
    What if we had an easier 8-puzzle
    where any tile could slide any
    direction at any time, ignoring
    other tiles?
    Start State

    Total Manhattan distance


    Why is it admissible?

    Goal State

    Average nodes
    expanded when the
    optimal path has

    3 + 1 + 2 + = 18
    h(start) =

    TILES

    4
    steps

    8
    steps

    13

    39

    12
    steps
    227

    8 Puzzle III
    How about using the actual cost as a heuristic?
    Would it be admissible?
    Would we save on nodes expanded?
    Whats wrong with it?

    With A*: a trade-off between quality of estimate and work


    per node
    As heuristics get closer to the true cost, you will expand fewer
    nodes but usually do more work per node to compute the
    heuristic itself

    Semi-Lattice of Heuristics

    Trivial Heuristics, Dominance


    Dominance: ha hc if

    Heuristics form a semi-lattice:


    Max of admissible heuristics is
    admissible

    Trivial heuristics
    Bottom of lattice is the zero heuristic
    (what does this give us?)
    Top of lattice is the exact heuristic

    Graph Search

    Tree Search: Extra Work!


    Failure to detect repeated states can cause exponentially
    more work.
    State Graph
    Search Tree

    Graph Search
    In BFS, for example, we shouldnt bother expanding the circled
    nodes (why?)
    S

    d
    b

    e
    h
    p
    q

    q
    c
    a

    h
    r

    q
    G

    p
    q

    r
    q

    f
    c
    a

    Graph Search
    Idea: never expand a state twice
    How to implement:
    Tree search + set of expanded states (closed set)
    Expand the search tree node-by-node, but
    Before expanding a node, check to make sure its state
    has never been expanded before
    If not new, skip it, if new add to closed set

    Important: store the closed set as a set, not a list


    Can graph search wreck completeness?
    Why/why not?
    How about optimality?

    A* Graph Search Gone Wrong?


    State space graph

    Search tree

    S (0+2)

    S
    h=2

    h=4

    h=1

    B
    h=1

    G
    h=0

    A (1+4)

    B (1+1)

    C (2+1)

    C (3+1)

    G (5+0)

    G (6+0)

    Consistency of Heuristics
    Main idea: estimated heuristic costs
    actual costs

    A
    h=4
    h=2

    Admissibility: heuristic cost actual cost to

    h=1
    3

    goal
    h(A) actual cost from A to G
    Consistency: heuristic arc cost actual cost
    for each arc
    h(A) h(C) cost(A to C)

    Consequences of consistency:
    The f value along a path never decreases
    h(A) cost(A to C) + h(C)

    Optimality of A* Graph Search

    Optimality of A* Graph Search


    Sketch: consider what A* does
    with a consistent heuristic:
    Fact 1: In tree search, A* expands
    nodes in increasing total f value (fcontours)
    Fact 2: For every state s, nodes
    that reach s optimally are
    expanded before nodes that reach
    s suboptimally
    Result: A* graph search is optimal

    f1
    f2
    f3

    Optimality
    Tree search:

    A* is optimal if heuristic is admissible


    UCS is a special case (h = 0)

    Graph search:

    A* optimal if heuristic is consistent


    UCS optimal (h = 0 is consistent)

    Consistency implies admissibility


    In general, most natural admissible
    heuristics tend to be consistent,
    especially if from relaxed problems

    A*: Summary

    A*: Summary
    A* uses both backward costs and (estimates of)
    forward costs
    A* is optimal with admissible / consistent heuristics
    Heuristic design is key: often use relaxed problems

    Tree Search Pseudo-Code

    Graph Search Pseudo-Code

    You might also like