m2 Class Slide Fall 2014

Magnetic Particle
Level II
(CGSB 48-9712)
1. Principles of Magnets and Magnetic

Fields
Theory of magnetic fields - Magnetic
domains
Materials that can be magnetized have submicroscopic regions called magnetic

domains that will have positive and negative polarity at opposite ends if
magnetized.
If a material is not magnetized, the magnetic domains are randomly orientated.
When the material is subjected to an indirectly induced magnetic external field
or if current is passed directly through the test object, the magnetic domains
align themselves and form a north and south pole in the test object.

Fields
Theory of magnetic fields - Earth's magnetic field
The Earth's magnetic field resembles that of an enormous bar magnet. The field
lines emerge from the southern half of the earth and re-enter in the northern half.
The earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind, whose charged
particles would otherwise strip away the ozone layer that protects the Earth from
harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Fields
Theory of magnetic fields - Magnets
Lodestone is a naturally magnetized piece of the

mineral magnetite; is black or brownish-black with a
metallic luster..
Lodestone
Man-made magnets are made from a material that is

strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic
(or ferrimagnetic) material - including iron, nickel, cobalt
and some rare earth metals. Neodymium magnets,
(1980s, strongest & affordable rare-earth magnet). alloy
of neodymium, iron and boron (Nd2Fe14B). Uses compact permanent magnets for electric motors for
cordless tools, hard drives, and magnetic hold-downs
and jewelry clasps
Rare earth metal
Electro-magnet are induced by passing current thru the

object or equipment. For example an AC yoke is an
electro-magnet used for MPI.
AC Yoke

Fields
Theory of magnetic fields
Magnetic field around magnetised material is

invisible to the naked eye.
But the field can be visualise with iron filing as
shown below. The pictures below show the
different flux pattern. Magnetic flux is the lines of
forces.
Magnetic lines of force

around a bar magnet
Opposite poles
attracting
Similar poles repelling

Fields
Theory of magnetic fields
-
Magnetic lines of force present in a magnetic field are

called the magnetic flux. The unit of magnetic force is the
Maxwell.
Flux density is the flux per unit area ("B"). The unit of flux
measurement is the Gauss.
Surface flux strength; flux can flow on the surface and in
AC magnetization will concentrate on the surface (skin
effect) ; whereas DC magnetization will be more distributed
throughout.
AC
DC
Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (30 April 1777 23 February 1855) German mathematician/physicist.
James Clerk Maxwell (June 13, 1831 - November 5, 1879) Scottish physicist

Fields
Theory of magnetism
Magnetic poles : bar and horseshoe magnet
Ring magnet with

poles
Bar magnet with

poles
Horseshoe magnet
with poles

Fields
Theory of magnetism
Laws of magnetism
- Like poles repel
- Unlike pole attract

Fields
Theory of magnetism
Material influenced by magnetic field (ferro/para/dia-magnetic).
Diamagnetic - Those materials that are feebly repelled by a strong magnet. Small
and negative susceptibility to magnetization. Eg Copper, Silver, Gold.
Paramagnetic - Those materials that will accept magnetism but only slightly. Small
and positive susceptibility to magnetization. Eg. Magnesium, Lithium, Tantalum
Ferromagnetic- Those materials that can be strongly magnetized and are suitable
for magnetic particle inspection. Large and positive susceptibility to magnetization.
Eg, Iron, Nickel, Cobalt
Ferromagnetic material have strong attraction and are able to retain magnetisation
after the magnetizing field is removed; especially hard or tool steel.

Fields
Theory of magnetism
Distance factors
- The further from the poles the weaker is the field

Fields
Theory of magnetism
Magnetic lines of force (flux) have the following characteristics:

- They form closed loops.
- They resemble rubber bands in that they will stretch and change shape under the
influence of any magnetic fields present.
- They return upon themselves and form close paths.
- They never cross.
- They seek the path of least resistance.
- They are most densely packed at the poles.
- They flow from north to south outside of the magnet and from south to north inside
the ferromagnetic material.

Fields
Theory of magnetism
Phenomenon action at discontinuity

If a ferromagnetic test specimen is magnetized with a strong magnetic field created by
a magnet or special equipment. If the specimen has a discontinuity, the discontinuity
will interrupt the magnetic field flowing through the specimen and a leakage field will
occur.

Fields
Theory of magnetism
Heat effects on magnetism

- The Curie temperature is the critical point where a material's intrinsic magnetic
moments change direction hence loses its magnetism.
- The Curie temperature is named after Pierre Curie who showed that magnetism
was lost at a critical temperature
Material
Curie temp. (F) Curie temp .(C)
Cobalt
2039
1115
Iron (Fe)
1416
770
Fe2O3
1247
675
Nickel
669
354

Fields
Theory of magnetism
Material hardness and magnetic retention

- Hard steel (tool steel) are hard to magnetise and de-magnetise; hence
retain magnetism. They are good for making permanent magnets.
- Soft or mild steel is used for fabrication of structures and pressure vessel.
Easy to magnetise and de-magnetise; hence retain little or no residual
magnetism.
Later in the sections on hysteresis loop and de-magnetisation; the hard and
soft steel characteristics will be better defined.

Fields
Terminology associated with magnetic particle testing
Magnetic flux : maxwell

Magnetizing force (H) : oersted
Flux density (B) : gauss
Reluctance
Permeability (B/H = )
Coercive force
Residual magnetism
Retentivity
De-magnetization
Hysteresis loop/curve
Flux leakage
Induction
Flash point
Viscosity
Contrast Ratio
Hans Christian rsted (14 August 1777 - 9 March 1851) Danish physicist
2. Characteristics of Magnetic Fields

Bar magnet and ring magnet
Bar magnet has poles (N&S) and
magnetic field outside the bar
Ring magnet has no poles and

magnetic field are all internal

Current Type
-
Alternating current (AC) is the most basic source single phase or 3-phase.
A
AA
Single phase
3-phase
Direct current (DC) is either from a stored media (eg batteries, capacitors) or
converted from AC (eg. half-wave DC or full-wave DC)
A
Battery
HWDC
FWDC

Alternating Current
Cyclic effects
- Due to cyclic nature of AC, the indication will appear to be dancing (particle
mobility) and hence better delectability.
Surface strength characteristics
- AC will have concentration of the field lines on the surface (skin effect); better
detection of surface or very close to surface discontinuities. Not good for subsurface or deep discontinuities (3-5mm).
Safety precautions
- Caution when using AC; high voltage and amperage
Source of current
- Generator or public utility will produce AC; 120V single phase or 440V 3-phase.
No rectifiers are required so the weight of the equipment is reduce, lighter and less
expensive; AC is also used for demagnetizers

Half-wave (Pulsating) Direct Current
-
Derived from AC (single phase) but taking only one half of the wave; hence there is
a pause between each half wave (pulsating)
Good for particle mobility (due to pulsating) and field penetration

Direct Current (FWDC)
-
Derived from AC (single phase) but taking both halves of the wave; hence there is
no pause between each half-wave.
Good for field penetration but particle mobility is compromised.

Direct Current (FWDC : 3-phase)
-
Using 3-phase AC it is possible to use rectifiers to produce a FWDC that look very
close to pure DC (little ripples). It can be filtered to pure DC as shown below.

Relative sensitivity of different methods
-
AC magnetization is most effective for surface defects.

AC magnetization is not effective for subsurface defects.
HWDC is recommended for subsurface defects.
HWDC superior penetration to FWDC.
HWDC dc dry method gives the greatest penetration.
3. Effects of Discontinuities on Materials

Surface and sub-surface discontinuities
Indications
- Anything that is revealed during the inspection
Imperfections
- Any anomalies (deviation from the design or specification)
Discontinuities
- Indications that are flaws (faults); which may or may not acceptable
Defects
- Discontinuity that does not comply to an acceptance criteria or accepted norms.
- It can be detrimental if put in service
When we find something during an inspection, we call it an indication. Then if we can
attribute to be flaw then we call it a discontinuity. If the we compare it to an acceptance
criteria and it exceeds the acceptable limits then we call it a defect.

Surface discontinuities
- Discontinuities that are located at or very close to the surface (1-3mm approx.)
Sub-surface discontinuities
- Discontinuities located below the surface (3-5mm approx.); may go deep but then
the indication may be too fuzzy to interpret.
Fuzzy indication
Sharp indication

DC flux near and sub-surface

flaws
AC flux surface flaws

Design factors
Mechanical properties
- Properties like tensile strength, hardness and toughness will influence how the
material is use in fabrication and hence usage (service)
- Eg. for cold weather application (say below -40oC); a charpy test for toughness is
maybe required.
Part usage
- what is the part use for; how critical is the part?
- Eg. a turbine shaft may use a more sensitive technique such as wet florescent on
the wet bench
Relationship to load-carrying ability
- Is the part design to carry load?
- Eg. a lifting lug will require a critical inspection as it will be used in the lifting of the
component it is attached to may be a weld lug or bolted lug.
Georges A. Charpy (1 September 1865 25 November 1945) French scientist
4. Magnetization by Electric Current

Circular and Longitudinal Field
The two basic magnetic fields are:
- Circular field, and
- Longitudinal field
Faradays right hand rule

- Describe the relation between
current and magnetic field induces
in a wire (part) carrying a current.
If electron flow is used then left hand
rule applies
Michael Faraday (22 September 1791 25 August 1867) English physicist

Circular Field
Field around a straight conductor
- Using the right hand rule; the magnetic field around a conductor will be circular and
hence the term circular field.
Circular field

Circular Field
Field in parts with current flowing - long, solid regular parts
Head shot
using
contact
plates

Circular Field
Field in parts with current flowing - tubular parts
Head shot
using
contact
plates
Head shot using

central
conductor

Circular Field
Field in parts with current flowing - irregularly shaped parts (holes/slots)
Head shot
using
contact
plates
Head shot using

central
conductor

Circular Field
Methods of inducing field - contact plates (direct)
- Current is passed directly thru the part
- Good contact is critical; if not it may arc (sparking); same if the current is too high

Circular Field
Methods of inducing field- prods (direct)
- Using two prods (electrodes) and passing a current thru the part (indirect)
- Good contact is critical; if not it may arc (sparking); or if current is too high.

Circular Field
-
Methods of inducing field - central conductors (indirect)

Using a conductor (copper bar), pass through the hollow part and the current flow
to induce the magnetic field
No arcing of part as there is no direct flow of current thru part

Circular Field
-
Methods of inducing field - through cables (indirect)

Similar to a central conductor except a cable (wire) is used
Again no arcing of part

Circular Field
Methods of inducing field - leeches and clamps (direct)
- Similar to prods, except the contacts are held by magnets or clamps
- Arc is possible if contact is not good or current too high.
Leech
Clamp

Circular Field
Discontinuities commonly found by circular fields
- Any discontinuity perpendicular, or at angle but not parallel, to the circular field
- Longitudinal cracks, seam, laps, stringer etc.

Circular Field
Discontinuities commonly found by circular fields - examples

Circular Field
Current calculations
- Do some samples with the various equations
Direct contact
- Solid round part
- Solid rectangular part
- Solid irregular part
- Hollow part
Central conductor
- Hollow/ring part
- Irregular part
Prods
- Thickness and spacing

Circular Field
Direct Current Field Distribution
Solid Non-magnetic Conductor
-
Magnetic field strength varies from

zero in the centre to maximum at
the surface
Field strength outside the conductor
decreases exponentially with
distance

Circular Field
Solid Magnetic Conductor
-
Magnetic field strength increase

from zero in the centre to maximum
at the surface with a field strength
greater than a non-magnetic
conductor due to permeability,
distance; same as the non-magnetic
conductor

Circular Field
Hollow Non-magnetic Conductor
-

from zero inside surface to
maximum at the surface
distance

Circular Field
Hollow Magnetic Conductor
-

from zero in the centre slowly to
inside surface then rapidly to
maximum at the surface with a field
strength greater than a nonmagnetic conductor due to
permeability,
distance

Circular Field
Hollow Part with Central Conductor
-
Magnetic field strength is strongest

on the inside of magnetic hollow
part and decrease slightly at the
outside surface (good for ID
discontinuities),
distance

Circular Field
DC Field Distribution vs AC Field Distribution
-
DC increase is even
AC the increase slow then rapid
AC field concentrated near the surface
AC has skin effect (good for surface
discontinuities),
decreases exponentially with distance

Circular Field
Safety precautions
- Ensure good contact; clean contacts
- Do not over-amp (too high current)
- Will prevent arcing (sparking) and over-heating
Advantages of circular field
- Fast and good coverage; one shot will be good for whole part
- High amperage; good penetration for sub-surface discontinuities (using DC)
Disadvantages of circular field
- High amperage; safety precautions from electrocution
- Good contact and not too high amperage; arcing and over-heating. Never burn a
inspected part
- Not good for transverse orientated discontinuities (ie. parallel to field)

Longitudinal Field
-
Field produced by current flowing in a coil

Coil of a few turns (3-7); use to create a longitudinal field
Each turn will produce individual circular filed but combining the adjacent circular
field a longitudinal field is created.

Longitudinal Field
Principles of inducing flux
- The way magnetic field is induced is dependent on part geometry (and size), coil
shape and size.
- For example a wet bench coil is usually 10-14 in diameter; so the parts are limited
to anything less than the coil diameter. If the part is longer than 15 (approx.), then
more than 2 coil shots have to be performed.
- A yoke has the coil (solenoid) external to part and the induced magnetic field flow
into the part much like a horse-shoe magnet.

Longitudinal Field
Use of coils, cables and yokes
Stationary coil
Portable coil
Wrapped coil
Yoke

Longitudinal Field
Current calculations - do samples with the various equations
- L/D ratio
- Number of turns
- Fill factor & placement (inside edge / middle of coil)
- Part length
- Use of extensions
(for coil stationary, portable and wrapped)
Yoke AC & DC
- Do not need calculation as amperage is note on unit (say 4Amps)
- Orientation is critical in yoke

Longitudinal Field
Quick break & transient (eddy) current
Quick break (fast break or controlled break) is the sudden ending or stopping of
magnetizing current. This breaking of the current results in a transient (eddy)
current induced into the part..
- When a direct current is shut off, the field around the conductor falls rapidly to
zero. This rapid change of energy generates a voltage and a current that is in the
opposite direction of that in the circuit resulting in a transient current being induced
into the part.
- The resulting current was greatly increased when using quick break on
ferromagnetic material; hence and increase in the residual magnetic field inside of
the part resulted in a better field for inspection for finding transverse discontinuities
in the ends of longitudinally magnetized bars.
- These types of discontinuities are often concealed by the strong polarity at the bar
ends.
- With the use of the quick break technique, the resultant transient current makes
certain that the field stays true to the end of the bar, enabling the inspection of
transverse discontinuities.

Longitudinal Field
Quick break & transient (eddy) current
very ends of bar are not truly longitudinally
magnetized and any transverse indications
in this area may not be reliably detected
Residual field n bar

generated by slow break
transient current generated flows inside the bar

resulting in a near surface field, allowing part to
be truly longitudinally magnetized to the very
ends of the bar; hence allowing
transverse indications to be found at the very
end of bar
Residual field n bar

generated by quick break

Longitudinal Field
Advantages
- No direct induction so no arcing (sparking)
- Good for circumferential or transverse discontinuities
- Good portability (yoke)
Disadvantages
- Not good for longitudinal discontinuities (ie. parallel to field)
- For long part (more 15-18) need more than 1 shot for coverage.

Multi-directional magnetization
Combination of shots that will be used to inspect a part in one or two steps; usually
without re-positioning of the part. Eg. swinging field technique
- The two basic flux directions is achieved by the use of two phases of a three phase
mains supply.
- One phase is connected to the longitudinal flux generating system which can be
either a coil or a flux flow system. A second phase is used to generate
circumferential flux, usually by current flow through the work piece.
- As there is in sinusoidal A.C. a cyclic change in current value from zero to
maximum positive, down to zero, on to maximum negative and return to zero - fifty
times per second, and as there is a lag between the two phases, at any instant
there will be different amplitudes of longitudinal and circumferential fields.

Swinging field (Approach 1) :
solid part
-
Direct contact
Coil

Swinging field (Approach 2) :
hollow part
-
In-direct contact (central

conductor
Coil

Toroidal magnetization
-
toroid is a doughnut shaped object

purpose of using toroidal magnetization is to create a noncontact type of magnetic
induction to eliminate the possibility of arc burning that may be produced by a direct
contact shot
performed in one step compared with other methods that might require multiple
inspection steps, because the magnetic field is uniform and completely
encompasses the part (assuming uniform part geometry)

Primary effect - magnetizing current (mag shot) produces a field surrounding the part
Secondary effect - circumferential current flow is developed within the test piece by the
collapsing field.
Tertiary effect - strong toroidal magnetic field is created as a product of the secondary
current flow within the part.
Discontinuities perpendicular to the field direction within the part may now be detected.
Secondary
current
is
induced in ring only as
result of movement of
magnetic
field
of
bar
magnet in relationship to
ring. Induced current in ring
creates toroidal field (blue
line)

Use coil on a wet horizontal and a high permeability, low retentivity ferromagnetic
laminated core through part to concentrate the flux and make it perform more efficiently.
When coil is energized, a longitudinal field flows the laminated core and to some extent
in part.
When coil is de-energized, this field collapses and induces a circumferential current into
part. This in turn induces a strong toroidal field surrounding the part in a radial direction
Magnetic flux during

magnetizing pulse is
concentrated in core
inserted through test
object

Use a tabletop transformer fixture connected to the wet horizontal machine or portable
MT machine using a standard clamp block
wet continuous method can be use and be removed from the machine when not
needed
Table top, closed loop

transformer fixture showing
close proximity of primary and
secondary (ring shaped test
object) windings with core

Magnetic field adequacy and direction
When it is necessary to verify the adequacy of magnetic field strength (and direction),
one of the following may be used
- Magnetic field indicator (pie-gage)
- Artificial shims (QQI); castrol strips; magnetic card
- Hall effect tangential field probes

Magnetic field adequacy and direction
Castrol strips
Pie gage
Shims (QQI)
Hall effect
meter

Hall effect meter

Hall effect meter eg measure field in bolt hole
5. Selection proper method of

magnetization
Factors determining the selection
Alloy, shape and condition of part

Type of magnetizing current
Direction of magnetic field
Sequence of operations
Flux value (hall effect gauss meter)
Examples:- Weld
- Shaft/bolt
- Small casting (landing gear)
- Large casting (bonnet)
6. Inspection materials
Inspection particles
The magnetic particles used for MPI is essentially iron fillings with a dye (make it more
visible): - Wet particles: suspended in a liquid (vehicle or media)
- Dry particles (powder): just particles and dye.
They can be visible and florescent magnetic particles:- Visible particles are used for visible MPI with white (normal) light
- Florescent particles for use with UV or black-light
Characteristics of magnetic particle:- High permeability (low retentivity)
- Size and shape for consistent results
- Non-toxic
- Free form contaminants (dirt, grease, rust etc.)
Liquids (Suspensions) and Powders
Dry particles (powder)
- Assortment of color (depending on the background); grey, black, red, yellow, blue
- Use as supplied; spraying or dusting
- Not affect by cold and heat resistant (upto 600oF/315oC)
- Good for detection of near surface flaws
- Portable equipment on large surfaces (large castings)
- Superior particle mobility
- Easy to remove (falls off)
Dry particles (powder)
- Large size (#8A red 180microns); less sensitive than wet florescent.
- Not use in confined space without safety breathing apparatus
- Difficult for overhead positions
- Does not leave evidence of coverage
- Low production than wet florescent
- Difficult to adapt to any automatic system
Contrast and background
Contrast
- state of being strikingly different from something else, typically something in close
association
- dye makes an indication more visible to the human eye
- different colored dyes; blue, yellow, and green, but it seemed that the red dye
resulted in best response to visible observation
- term "contrast ratio" is generally used to express "seeability"
- white dye on a white background, the contrast ratio would be one-to-one; no
contrast between the dye and the background.
- red dye, the contrast ratio is said to be six-to-one, making that contrast very
noticeable on a white background surface
- contrast ratio of a fluorescent dye is said to be forty-to-one
- hence, fluorescent penetrant produces a much higher degree of "seeability" or
sensitivity as compared to visible dye penetrants
Particles in suspension:- particles suspended in a vehicle such as water or light petroleum distillate applied
by flowing. spraying. or pouring
- available in both fluorescent and non-fluorescent concentrates
- premixed with suspending vehicle by the supplier. but usually supplied as dry
concentrate (powder) or paste concentrate (to be mixed by the user)
- suspensions normally used in wet horizontal MPI equipment; dispensed from an
aerosol or other dispensers
Liquid requirements as vehicle/media
- wetability; good wetting for surface of parts
- viscosity about 5 mm2/s (5 centistokes) at room temperature; good particle
mobility.
- flammability; flashpoint of 57oC (135oF) are lowest practical flammability threshold
- odor; not objectionable and no (little) undesirable contaminants (sulfur)
- fluorescence; because most wet suspensions use fluorescent particles and many
oils are also naturally fluorescent, an
- oil with a low level of natural fluorescence is desirable
- non-toxic and does not damage part (eg sulphur, halogen)
Using water as vehicle/media:- not flammable
- easily available; cheap
- suitable conditioning agents are added which provide proper wet dispersing
(wetability)
- corrosion protection (corrosion inhibitor) for parts being examined and the
equipment used
- disperse the magnetic particles without evidence of particle agglomeration.
- minimize foaming; it should not produce excessive foam which would interfere with
indication formation or cause particles to form scum with the foam
- conditioned water should be essentially odorless (use germicide)
Using oil or petrol distillate as vehicle/media:- significant advantages for the use of petroleum distillate vehicles the magnetic
particles are suspended and dispersed in petroleum distillate vehicles without use
of conditioning agents (good wettability)
- petroleum distillate vehicles provide a measure of corrosion protection to part and
the equipment used
- disadvantages are flammability. fumes. and availability
- select and maintain readily available sources of supply of petroleum distillate
vehicles that have as high a flash point as practicable
- work area with proper ventilation
Product Name: BAYOL 35

Product Description:
lsoparaffinic
Hydrocarbon
Intended Use: Solvent
Advantages of suspension:- small size (7C black: 20microns; 14A: 6microns); more sensitive than dry powder
- able to remain in discontinuities until they are removed
- contrast is invariably higher with wet fluorescent
Disadvantages of suspension
- Hard to remove; oil remnant not good for processes (eg. welding)
- Handling procedures; especially with flammable liquid (petroleum distillate)
- Mixing suspension; additives for water vehicle
- Odor and ventilation requirements
Mixing procedures for suspension
- pour water or light oil distillate into a container or tank
- weigh or measure the required concentrate
- pour concentrate into the container or tank; stir as required
- take a sample and measure the concentration with centrifuge tube
14A concentrate :
1/6 oz./gal. (1.25 g/l)

0.15 - 0.28 ml/100ml
7C concentrate :
1.25 oz/gal (9.4 g/l)

1.3 1.7ml/100ml
Note: use of a reference concentration when new suspension is mixed
Stationary equipment with circulating bath/suspension
trough
Mixing suspension - accurate proportions
- Visible : 1.2 to 2.4ml/100ml
- Florescent: 0.1 to 0.4ml/100ml
Centrifuge tubes
- Visible : with 1.5ml stem
- Florescent: with 1.0ml stem
florescent
visible
7. Principles of Demagnetization
-
magnetic hysteresis loop or curve is a graph that plots magnetizing force and
magnetic field strength
use magnetising and de-magnetising procedures
Permeability:
Permeability - ease with which a magnetic flux is established in a part

Reluctance - opposition of a magnetic material to establish a magnetic flux
Residual magnetism - amount of magnetism remaining after the
magnetising force is removed
Retentivity - ability of material to retain residual magnetism
Coercive force - the reversing magnetising force required to remove the
residual magnetism in a part
Soft steel:- Thin hysteresis loop

- High permeability
- Low reluctance
- Low coercive force
- Low residual magnetic field
- Low retentivity
Hard steel:- Wide hysteresis loop

- Low permeability
- High reluctance
- High coercive force
- High residual magnetic field
- High retentivity
Residual magnetism
When the magnetising current is removed not all the magnetic field is removed (see
hysteresis loop/curve)
- Same direction and weaker than the magnetic field
- A stronger magnetic field will overcome a weaker one (useful when de-mag circ
field)
Reasons for requiring demagnetization
- Affect magnetic compass (navigation) and delicate instruments
- Attract metal (shavings, chips) causing wear or binding
- May cause arc blow deflect molten metal in DC welding
- Magnetic particles may not be removed and hence cause problem later
Residual magnetism
Residual magnetism can be measured using
- Gaussmeter (magnometer)
- Hall effect gaussmeter (fieldmeter)
Gaussmeter
Hall effect meter
Residual magnetism
Longitudinal and circular residual fields
- Difficult to judge if a circular field is de-mag as it is difficult o measure as the flux
lines does not leave the part (unlike longitudinal field)
- So a circularly magnetised part should be long mag (stronger field) before demagnetising
To demagnetise a part that has been longitudinally magnetised
- use the reduce and reverse method
Reversing the magnetic field
- Reverse part in the magnetic field
- Reverse the current through the coil
- Reversing the coil (flip it by 180o)
Reducing the magnetic field
- Reduce the magnetising current
- Move the part away from magnetic field (coil)
- Move the coil away from the part
Any combination of the above maybe used.
Methods of demagnetization
AC Coil Method
- AC flows in one direction (-) and then the opposite direction (+)
- at every cycle the current is reduced
- that means the current is reversing (AC) and reducing with each cycle
- If coil does not have a reducing current rheostat; pull part way from the coil
DC Coil Method
- DC does not flow in like AC, so to reverse the direction it has to be done
mechanically (ie reverse the DC current or flip the part)
- reduce first then reverse
- at least 10 reversals but not more than 30 (1 reversal per second)
- DC de-magnetisation is more penetrating than AC; better for large part
Part that have been de-magnetised should be stored in the East-West direction; so
that it does not pick up the earths field.
The amount of residual that is allowed in a prat dependents on the specification. At
times the residual may not reach zero,. For instance in some specification the
maximum allowed residual may be 3 gauss.
If a part is to be heat treated (say pass the Curie temperature); demagnetisation may
not be required.
AC Yoke Method
- With AC yoke move the yoke away from the part while the current is on
8. Magnetic particle testing equipment

Equipment-selection considerations
Type of magnetizing current
- AC (single phase): yoke, portable unit, prods
- AC (3-phase): stationary unit (wet bench), multi-directional units
- DC battery: yoke (battery powered)
Location and nature of test
- In-situ (on-site): yoke or portable units
- Small objects and/or movable
Test materials used
- Weldments: yoke, prods
- Aircraft parts: bench, yoke, portable units
-
Purpose/area of test
Spot inspection and small area: yoke
Whole casting, full exam: bench or multi-directional unit

Manual inspection equipment
Portable yoke, portable MPI machine (with prods, clamps, coil)
Reason(s) for portable equipment

- do inspection in-situ (on-site) or remote location (eg. off-shore); ie. part cannot be
move to lab or test center
- do a quick job with little set-up; like yoke
Capabilities of portable equipment
- similarity to stationary equipment; AC/DC; circular/longitudinal fields

Manual inspection equipment
Stationary bench, multi-directional units
should be capable of handling large and heavy parts with cranes or forrklift
flexibility in use; both circular and longitudinal field or both
need for stationary equipment; better coverage; penetration (DC); efficient on large
repeat quantities; better sensitivity with wet florescent
use of accessories/attachments; coils, central conductor with black light for greater
sensitivity

Mechanized inspection equipment
Semi-automatic inspection equipment
- Single-purpose semi-automatic equipment; like inspection of small specific item (eg
automotive part knuckle: Karl Deutsch NDT)
- Multi-purpose semi-automatic equipment; flexible re-tooling for different geometries

Black light equipment
Electro-magnetic wave spectrum and ultra-violet (black-light invisible) wave


Black light and fluorescence
-
fluorescence is ability of some chemical

compounds to emit visible light when exposed to
near ultraviolet radiation
color of the emitted light depends upon the
material
most frequently used dyes emit a yellow-green
light in the wavelength band of 510 to 560 nm
chosen since the human eye has its highest
response to wavelengths in the 550 nm range
relative response of a typical human eye
compared to various wavelengths of visible light
using two different lighting conditions are shown
the graph to the right.
Curve A at 100 lumens (100-foot-candles) is typical of a welllighted inspection bench

Curve B at 2 lumens (2-footcandles) is the maximum white
light level allowed in a fluorescent penetrant inspection booth
Under darkened condition, the sensitivity of the eye increases
about 30 times and shifts slightly to blue region
At light level of 2 lumens, it is possible for the eye to see
some light wavelengths below 400 nm and above 700 nm

Sources of UV (black) light
-
Incandescent lamps.
Metallic or carbon arcs.
Integrally filtered tubular fluorescent lamps.
Tubular fluorescent lamps
Enclosed mercury vapor arc lamps
Metal halide or halogen lamps..
Mercury vapor lamp

-
high-pressure component is a quartz tube containing some mercury plus a small

amount of neon gas
when lamp is first turned on, mercury condensed as a liquid and an arc between
electrodes cannot be generated, this is the reason for neon gas
a small amount of current, limited by the resistor, causes a discharge from starting
electrode through neon gas
this glow is sufficient to vaporize the mercury, which then allows arc to pass between
main electrodes
this starting procedure requires from 5 to 15-minutes to fully vaporize the mercury and
produce full output of black light

Mercury vapor lamp - requirements in testing
-
high pressure, mercury vapor, black light bulb requires a housing, filter, regulating ballast or
transformer, and connecting cables or wires
housing, which may be metal or plastic, serves several functions:
- hold and protect the bulb.
- hold and support the filter.
- prevent leakage of unwanted visible light.
- permit directing the beam on the surface to be inspected.
- provide a means for handling the bulb
filter is a special material that prevents passage of short wavelength ultraviolet (UV-B&-C) and
long wavelength visible light; transmits ultraviolet (peak at 340-380nm: Kopp 41 filter glass)
clean filter regularly and do not use cracked or ill-fitting filter
black light intensity varies almost linearly with line voltage and black light ballast or
transformer does not regulate line variations
below 90-volts, lamps will not sustain the mercury arc and lamp will extinguish, and not restart
until it has cooled
black light lamps should be connected to stable power sources; not available and line voltage
fluctuates, use a constant potential transformer
aging, dust and dirt build up, can result in as much as a 50-percent decrease in ultraviolet
radiation output
usage; a single start can equate to 2 or 3-hours of continuous use on operating life

Black Light Safety
-
ultraviolet radiation below 320 nm can be hazardous and may cause permanent effects.
the output of a black light bulb is principally at 365 nm and the amount of radiation at shorter
wavelengths rapidly falls off.
the amount of radiation emitted at or below 320 nm is typically less than 1-percent; however,
this quantity is enough to require a filter
germicidal, sun tanning, and mineral light bulbs that emit short and medium wavelength
ultraviolet light SHALL NOT be used for penetrant inspection
ultraviolet light filtering safety eyewear and gloves shall be used to minimize potential
detrimental health effects.
eyeball fluorescence under ultraviolet radiation
- the fluid in the eye will fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet radiation
- an operator may experience this phenomenon as a clouding of the vision when the
ultraviolet radiation is reflected into the operators eyeball or if ultraviolet radiation is
reflected from highly reflective surfaces
- can usually be corrected by positioning the lamp so the radiation is not directed or reflected
into the inspectors eye
- use of eyewear designed to protect the eyes from UV-A and UV-B will reduce this effect
- inspector entering a darkened area SHALL allow at least 5-minutes for dark adaptation
before examining part.

Black Light dark adaptation

-
ability of the human eye to

see in various stages of
illumination
perception of contrast and
color are at a maximum in
bright light but are rapidly
lost in the dark
ability to discern faint light
sources is at a minimum in
bright light (florescence) but
at a maximum in the dark
this effect is of utmost
importance in black light
testing
behavior of human eye vs illumination level

Light sensitive (measuring) instruments
- measure white light; use a white light meter (photometer)
- measure UV (black) light; use a UV (black light) meter (radiometer)
- use a dual sensor photometer/radiometer
white-light meter
black-light meter
black & white-light meter
* minimum UV-A output for a black light SHALL be 1000 W/cm 2 measured at a
distance of 15 from the outside face of the filter.
9. Type of discontinuities detected by NDT

Types of discontinuities
Inherent discontinuities/flaws
- usually formed when the metal is molten
- inherent wrought flaws are related to melting and solidification of original ingot
before forming into slabs, blooms an billets
- inherent casting flaws relates to melting, casting and solidification of a cast article;
caused by variable such as inadequate feeding, gating, excessive pouring
temperature or entrapped gases
Processing discontinuities/flaws
- related to various processes like machining, forming, extruding, rolling, welding,
heat treating and plating
Services discontinuities/flaws
- relates to various in-service conditions like stress, corrosion, erosion and fatigue

General flaws types
Product form:- Bursts (Forgings)
- Cold Shuts (Castings)
- Cracks (All Product Forms)
- Hot Tear (Castings)
- Inclusions (All Product Forms)
- Lamination (Plate, Pipe)
- Laps (Forgings)
- Porosity (Castings)
- Seams(Bar, Pipe)

General flaws types
Welding:- Burn Through
- Cracks
- Excessive/Inadequate Reinforcement
- Inclusions (Slag/Tungsten)
- Incomplete Fusion
- Incomplete penetration
- Misalignment
- Overlap
- Porosity
- Root Concavity
- Undercut

General flaws types
Service induced discontinuities:- Wear (Localized)
- Corrosion-Assisted Fatigue Cracks
- Corrosion - general, pitting
- Creep (Primary)
- Erosion
- Fatigue Cracks
- Hot Cracking
- Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
- lntergranular Stress-Corrosion Cracks
- Stress-Corrosion Cracks (Transgranular)
10. Interpretation and evaluation of indications

Relevant, Non-relevant and False Indications
Relevant Indications
- are produced by leakage fields which are the result of discontinuities.
- require evaluation with regard to acceptance standard/criteria
Non-relevant indications
- can occur singly or in patterns as a result of leakage fields created by conditions
that require no evaluation such as changes in section (like keyways and drilled
holes), inherent material properties (like the edge of a bimetallic weld), magnetic
writing etc.
False Indications
- are not the result of magnetic forces
- examples are particles held mechanically or by gravity in shallow depressions or
particles held by rust or scale on the surface.

Common discontinuities
Casting
Forging & Rolling
Welding
Misc
Pores
Blowholes
Piping
Inclusions
Shrinkage
Hot tears
Cracks
Cold shuts
Unfused chaplets
Misplaced core
Segregation
Laps
Cracks
Rolled-in scales
Scabs
Seams
Stringers
Laminations
Chevron
Bursts
Porosity
Pipe or wormholes
Non-metallic inclusion
Tungsten inclusion
Lack of fusion
Incomplete root
penetration
Cracks
Undercut
Concavity
overlap
Excessive penetration /
reinforcement
Lamellar tearing
Burn through
Laps
Cracks
Fatigue cracks
Stress crack
Heat cracks
Stress corrosion cracks
Corrosion
Grinding cracks
Heat treat cracks

Indications - pictures
Cracks

Seams, stringers, laps

Flakes/scabs

Forging burst

Lamination

Cold shuts

Porosity

Shrinkage

Blowholes (pipes)

Inclusions

Hot tears

Corrosion

Wear/erosion

Wear/erosion

Service induced cracks

Weld spatter, slag, undercut, misalignment, arc strike

Weld misc. discontinuities

Boiler (and tube) discontinuities

Boiler and heat exchanger tube thinning

Evaluation techniques
Interpretation:- determination of a magnetic particle indication's source and relevancy (distinguish
between relevant and non-relevant indications)
Evaluation:- process of determining the magnitude and significance of a discontinuity causing
an indication after it has been interpreted as being relevant.
Standards and references
- In order to proper carry out an inspection and evaluate any indications found we
need some guidance; hence the need for standards, specifications, acceptance
standards.
Comparison techniques
- In addition to standards; comparative pictures maybe used for evaluation (eg.
ASTM E125 : Standard Reference Photographs for Magnetic Particle Indications
on Ferrous Castings)
- In some instances actual reference standards (known defective part) may be used
at the start of a run to check the system

Evaluation techniques
Specifications
- Specifications usually details what is to be performed (eg. scope, calibrations,
types of shots, coverage, test parameters, personnel certification etc.)
- Most end user will have specification outline their NDE requirements and will
usually reference standards and codes (eg Dow Chemicals specifications for
pressure vessels references ASME codes; AugustaWestland references BS/EN
standards)
Certifications
- company certification may be required to ensure that the facility or shop is capable
of performing the required inspection to the end user requirements (eg ASME
certification or CWB 178)
- personnel certification is required to attest to the technicians qualification
(capability) to performed the inspection and evaluate the indications found which
maybe in-house (SNT-TC-1A), end user specific (AugustaWestland), or nationally
accredited (eg. CGSB)

Defect Appraisal
History of part
- Weld on pressure vessel
Manufacturing process
- SMAW, ground smooth
Possible causes of defect
- cracks (too high heat)
Use of part
- Waste water/chemicals
Acceptance and rejection criteria
- ASME VIII Div 1 Appendix 6
Use of tolerances
- No linear indication > 1/16

Defect Appraisal
History of part
- Casting (new)
Manufacturing process
- Sand cast, sand blasted surface
Possible causes of defect
- cracks (due uneven cooling)
Use of part
- Fitting for a hub
Acceptance and rejection criteria
- MSS SP-53
Use of tolerances
- max acceptable 0.3 ( 8 mm) long for
materials up to 0.5 (13 mm) thick
11. Standards, specifications, codes and

reports
Standard CAN/CGSB 48.9712
Non-destructive testing- Qualification and certification of NDT personnel

2014 edition; published by CSA
Scope:This International Standard specifies requirements for principles for the
qualification and certification of personnel who perform industrial nondestructive testing (NDT)
Methods:
a) acoustic emission testing;
b) eddy current testing;
c) infrared thermographic testing;
d) leak testing (hydraulic pressure tests excluded);
e) magnetic testing;
f) penetrant testing;
g) radiographic testing;
h) strain gauge testing;
i) ultrasonic testing;
j) visual testing (direct unaided visual tests and visual tests carried out during the
application of another NDT method are excluded)
* Go thru some of the standard relating to MT certification

reports
Standards, specifications and codes
Codes
-
generally the top-tier documents, providing a set of rules that specify the minimum acceptable
level of safety for manufactured, fabricated or constructed objects
may incorporate regulatory requirements and will often refer out to standards or specifications
for specific details on additional requirements not specified in the Code itself
examples: ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (B&PVC) and AWS D1.1 Structural
Welding Code Steel
Standards
-
documents that establish engineering or technical requirements for products, practices,

methods or operations
example those that provide requirements for performing NDT (eg ASTM E709 : Standard
Guide for Magnetic Particle Testing, and ASTM E 1444, Standard Practice for Magnetic
Particle Testing)
Specifications
-
provide specific requirements for materials, components or services

often generated by private companies (owners/end-users) to address additional requirements
applicable to a specific product or application
often listed in procurement agreements or contract documents as additional requirements
above and beyond code or standard requirements

reports
NDT Procedures
-
written by companies to describe how an NDT method is carried out in the facility and/or a
specific project or contract
reference codes, standards and/or specifications that may be required for the NDT work to be
performed
Written/work instructions
-
step by step instructions on how a specific NDT task is to be performed
Technique sheets
-
detailed steps and/or sequences of operations for a specific NDT task

will include specific inspection parameters for the NDT task
Reports
-
written testimony of the NDT work performed and the outcome (eg. accept/reject)
include inspection parameters including acceptance criteria
may include sketches or pictures showing area tested or for disposition (eg repair/scrap)
include technicians name and certification

reports
Defining the scope of the examination

- The scope of the examination has to be defined from the start ie. what is to be
performed (eg RT or UT), the area(s) or part/component to be inspected, what
standard/specification/code to use, acceptance standard/criteria to evaluate the
indications to, personnel certification etc.
Acceptance criteria (NDT)
- Specified indicators or measures used to assessing any indications found during
the inspection (eg. no cracks; no linear indication > 1/16)
Establishing specifications
- Owner/end-user (engineer) will put forward a specification that will be deployed in
conjunction with the contractual NDT work to be performed
Technical evaluation of given specifications
- Prior to the start of a job or contract, the specification will be reviewed to ensure all
the requirements are met (eg. equipment, certification etc.)
- Usually carried out by an NDT technically competent person

reports
Reports
Establishing reports
- A written testimony of the inspection is usually required in any inspection to
document the inspection work performed
Technical requirements of reports
- A report will include the parameter used in the inspection (eg. project, part #,
code/specification used, procedure used, equipment, environment, inspection
settings, personnel name and certification etc.)
Technical evaluation of reports
- The results will usually reference a code/specification (acceptance criteria); and
maybe a sketch/picture of area(s) tested or for disposition.
-
Corrective actions
An acceptable part is usually put into use or work to proceed; while and
unacceptable one will be disposition by the owner/end-user (eg. re-work, repair,
scrap, use as is etc.)

reports
Reports
What was
inspected
What were the
inspection
parameters
What was
found
Who
performed
inspection
What was
result and
disposition

reports
Review of Specification/Standard/Code
Review one or more of the following:- ASME V Article 7

- ASME VIII Div 1 Appendix 6
- CSA W59 (MT only)
- ASTM E709
- ASTM E125
Samples on how to do evaluation
12. Quality control of equipment and processes

Proper functioning of equipment and accessories
-
In order to get the right results; all the equipment and accessories used must be
functioning properly
Either it has to be calibrated or attested that it complies with the specification,
standard and/or code that is specified for the NDT work
Calibration frequency is usually specified in the codes, standards or specifications
ASTM E709

Proper functioning of equipment and accessories
- Aircraft related checks
Helicopter
specification

Proper magnetic particles and bath suspension
Checking the particle concentration in a bath (wet
florescent)
use a 100 ml pear shaped centrifuge tube, or
equivalent, graduated to 1 ml in 0.05 ml increments,
- agitate the suspension a minimum of 30 minutes.
- fill the pear-shaped centrifuge tube to the 100 ml
mark,
- demagnetise and allow the suspension to settle for at
least 60 minutes,
- read the volume of settled particles and examine with
a black light, for contamination
Particle concentration shall be:- 01 to 0.4ml/100ml

Process control
Technique sheets
- detailed steps and/or sequences of
operations for a specific NDT task
- ensure everyone does the work the
same way
- ensure quality of the work
performed as technique sheets
have to approve prior to use
- consistent outcome or results

Process control
Control of wet method particle concentration
- Brilliance and contamination
- in-use ink (bath) shall be checked under UV-A against the reference sample stored ; any of
the following conditions are unacceptable and shall require replacement of the in-use ink
- a noticeable reduction in the fluorescent brightness of the in-use ink relative to the reference
sample,
- clouding of the in-use ink (bath) carrier fluid to the extent that the markings on the flask
between 5ml and 25ml cannot be seen through the carrier fluid,
- milky white or bluish white fluorescence of the carrier fluid (due to oil or grease
contamination).
-
Verifying illumination - visible (white) / UV (backlight)

- black light filters shall be verified for cleanliness and integrity; contaminated filters shall be
cleaned and damaged filters shall be replaced.
- black light intensity shall be checked using a calibrated radiometer (UV meter) at a distance of
15" (38cm) from the filter of the lamp; the minimum acceptable radiance shall be 1,000
W/cm2
- the inspection area (florescent inspection) shall be verified for background white light; the
maximum intensity shall be 2 foot-candles (20 lx),
- the white light intensity of the visible inspection, used to verify fluorescent indications shall be
checked, the minimum intensity shall be 100 foot-candles (1,000 lx).

Process control
Calibration of current output using shunts
- accuracy of the equipment ammeter shall be verified with a calibrated ammeter shunt connected
to the head and tail stock contacts
- comparative readings shall be taken at least at three levels of output current encompassing the
usable range of the equipment
- The equipment meter reading shall not deviate from the current level indicated by the shunt by
more than 50 A or 10% of the actual ammeter output of the magnetising equipment,
whichever is the greater
Verifying the magnetic field

- a tangential field strength meter based on the Hall effect and capable of measuring the specified
values,
- a set of magnetic flux indicators (flexible laminated strips) compliant with ASTM E 1444, - a set
of reference notched shims compliant with SAE AS5371,

Process control
Quick break test
- use a quick-break tester or a suitable oscilloscopes
13. Instruction writing

Written Instructions
Ability to prepare a detailed NDT instruction providing written step by step information
on the testing of a sample and to provide the instruction by application
- Step-by-step review of how to write a sample written instruction
- Shall include:
a. A description of the test specimen.
b. A list of equipment, reference standards and accessories used.
c. A description of the calibration procedures specific for the test
specimen.
d. A description of the inspection procedures specific for the test
specimen.
e. The instrument settings at the time of inspection.
f. A report of the results.

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What are magnetic domains and how do they align when a material is magnetized?

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