Chapter 1: Introduction: Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013 Operating System Concepts - 9 Edit9on

Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating System Concepts 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013
Chapter 1: Introduction
What Operating Systems Do
Computer-System Organization
Computer-System Architecture
Operating-System Structure (overview of Chapter 2)
Operating-System Operations
Process Management (overview of Chapters 3-7)
Memory Management (overview of Chapters 8-9)
Storage Management (overview of Chapters 10-13)
Protection and Security (overview of Chapters 14-15)
Kernel Data Structures
Computing Environments
Open-Source Operating Systems
Overview in this chapter, study in detail later on
Operating System Concepts 9th Edition 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013
Objectives
To describe the basic organization of computer systems

Quick recap of previous Lecture
To provide a grand tour of the major components of
operating systems
To give an overview of the many types of computing
environments
Most were overviewed in Lecture 1
To explore several open-source operating systems
Recap: What is an Operating System?
OS is a program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
Four Components of a Computer System
Computer Startup
Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known
as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
We will come back to it
Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common
bus providing access to shared memory
Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its
operation by causing an interrupt
Common Functions of Interrupts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

generally, through the interrupt vector, which contains the
addresses of all the service routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the
interrupted instruction
A trap or exception is a software-generated interrupt
caused either by an error or a user request
An operating system is interrupt driven
Interrupt Handling
The OS preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers

and the program counter
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
polling
The interrupt controller polls (send a signal out to)
each device to determine which one made the
request
vectored interrupt system
Separate segments of code determine what action should
be taken for each type of interrupt
Interrupt Timeline
I/O Structure
Synchronous (blocking) I/O
Waiting for I/O to complete
Easy to program, not always efficient
Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time
no simultaneous I/O processing
Asynchronous (nonblocking) I/O
After I/O starts, control returns to user program without
waiting for I/O completion
Harder to program, more efficient
System call request to the OS to allow user to wait for
I/O completion (polling periodically to check busy/done)
Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device
indicating its type, address, and state
Storage Definitions and Notation Review
The basic unit of computer storage is the bit. A bit can contain one of two
values, 0 and 1. All other storage in a computer is based on collections of bits.
Given enough bits, it is amazing how many things a computer can represent:
numbers, letters, images, movies, sounds, documents, and programs, to name
a few. A byte is 8 bits, and on most computers it is the smallest convenient
chunk of storage. For example, most computers dont have an instruction to
move a bit but do have one to move a byte. A less common term is word,
which is a given computer architectures native unit of data. A word is made up
of one or more bytes. For example, a computer that has 64-bit registers and
64-bit memory addressing typically has 64-bit (8-byte) words. A computer
executes many operations in its native word size rather than a byte at a time.
Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally

measured and manipulated in bytes and collections of bytes.
A kilobyte, or KB, is 1,024 bytes
a megabyte, or MB, is 1,0242 bytes
a gigabyte, or GB, is 1,0243 bytes
a terabyte, or TB, is 1,0244 bytes
a petabyte, or PB, is 1,0245 bytes
Computer manufacturers often round off these numbers and say that a
megabyte is 1 million bytes and a gigabyte is 1 billion bytes. Networking
measurements are an exception to this general rule; they are given in bits
(because networks move data a bit at a time).
Storage Structure
Main memory only large storage media that the CPU can access
directly
Random access
Typically volatile
Secondary storage extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
Hard disks rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic
recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into
sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device
and the computer
Solid-state disks faster than hard disks, nonvolatile
Various technologies
Becoming more popular
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in

hierarchy
Speed
Cost (per byte of storage)
Volatility
Device Driver for each device
controller to manage I/O
Provides uniform interface
between controller and kernel
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
Caching
Important principle
Performed at many levels in a computer
in hardware,
operating system,
software
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
Efficiency
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy
Direct Memory Access Structure
Typically used for I/O devices that generate data in

blocks, or generate data fast
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer
storage directly to main memory without CPU
intervention
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than
the one interrupt per byte
How a Modern Computer Works
A von Neumann architecture
Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types:
4 Asymmetric Multiprocessing each processor is assigned a
specific task
4 Symmetric Multiprocessing each processor performs all tasks
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
A Dual-Core Design
Multicore
Several cores on a single chip
On chip communication is faster than between-chip
Less power used
Clustered Systems
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,
monitoring each other
Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
Applications must be written to use parallelization
Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming (Batch system) needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to
execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

so frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling
If processes dont fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven (hardware and software)
Hardware interrupt by one of the devices
Software interrupt (exception or trap):
Software error (e.g., division by zero)
Request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system
Operating-System Operations (cont.)
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components

User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware
Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or
kernel code
Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel
mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
Using timer for preventing certain events
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Timer is set to interrupt the computer after some time period
Keep a counter that is decremented by the physical clock
Operating system set the counter (privileged instruction)
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to
regain control, or
terminate program that exceeds allotted time
Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the
system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

connection with process management:
Creating and deleting both user and system processes
Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Memory Management
To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in

memory
All (or part) of the data that is needed by the program must be in
memory.
Memory management determines what is in memory and when
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
Memory management activities
Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to
move into and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
Different devices, same view
Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
File-System management
Files usually organized into directories
Access control on most systems to determine who can access
what
OS activities include
Creating and deleting files and directories
Primitives to manipulate files and directories
Mapping files onto secondary storage
Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Mass-Storage Management
Usually disks used to store
data that does not fit in main memory, or
data that must be kept for a long period of time
Proper management is of central importance
Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its
algorithms
Disk is slow, its I/O is often a bottleneck
OS activities
Free-space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling
I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices
from the user
I/O subsystem responsible for
Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data
temporarily while it is being transferred),
Caching (storing parts of data in faster storage for
performance),
General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices
Protection and Security
Protection any mechanism for controlling access of processes or

users to resources defined by the OS
Security defense of the system against internal and external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity
theft, theft of service
Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can
do what
Access control for users and groups
Computing Environments
Recall from Lecture 1:

Stand-alone general purpose machines
Mobile:
Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc
Distributed computing
Client-server computing
Peer-to-Peer computing
Cloud-computing
Real-Time systems
Embedded Systems
Computing Environments - Virtualization
Virtualization (more details in Chapter 16, which will not be tested)
Host OS, natively compiled for CPU
VMM - virtual machine manager
Creates and runs virtual machines
VMM runs guest OSes, also natively compiled for CPU
Applications run within these guest OSes
Example: Parallels for OS X running Win and/or Linux and their apps
Some VMMes run within a host OS
But, some act as a specialized OS
Example. VMware ESX: installed on hardware, runs when hardware boots, provides
services to apps, runs guest OSes
Vast and growing industry
Use cases
Developing apps for multiple different OSes on 1 PC
Very important for cloud computing
Executing and managing compute environments in data centers
Computing Environments - Virtualization
End of Chapter 1
Operating System Concepts 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2013

Chapter 1: Introduction: Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013 Operating System Concepts - 9 Edit9on

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Overview in this chapter, study in detail later on

To describe the basic organization of computer systems

OS is a program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot

I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine

The OS preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers

Computer storage, along with most computer throughput, is generally

Storage systems organized in

Typically used for I/O devices that generate data in

A von Neumann architecture

Most systems use a single general-purpose processor

Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs

Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in

To execute a program all (or part) of the instructions must be in

Protection any mechanism for controlling access of processes or

Recall from Lecture 1:

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