Two phase fluid flow

Instructor:
Valid Taghikhani

Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology

1
 Course syllabus
Introduction to multiphase flow
PVT analysis and Gas/Liquid mixture properties
Basic concepts of two phase flow
Isothermal Vertical Two Phase Flow
Flow Through the Valves and Restrictions
Heat Transfer in Non-Isothermal Vertical Two Phase Flow
Isothermal Horizontal and Inclined Two Phase Flow
Pipeline Problems and Flow Assurance
(WAX/Ashpaltene/Hydrate)
Pigging and slug catchers
Analytical Modeling and Solution of Two Phase Flow
Computer applications (OLGA, pvt-sim, PIPEPHASE) 2
References

Two phase flow in pipes, 6th ed., J P Brill, H P Beggs.

Multiphase flow in wells, J P Brill, SPE communication.

Pipe Flow 1, Multiphase Flow Assurance, Ove Bratland.

Pipe Flow 2, Multiphase Flow Assurance, Ove Bratland.

Some technical papers.

3
Course grading scheme

Written exams (up to 80%)

Assignments (up to 5%)

Class projects (up to 15%)

A mailing list and a taker to moderate the mailing list

required. Who is the taker!?

4
Multiphase Production system

Surface
Well
equipment

Reservoir

5
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Horizontal
Inclined
Liquid charge system
Gas Charge system
Back pressure regulator
Chiller/heater
FL Deck
Multiphase pump
Gamma ray densitometer
 Session 2:
PVT Analysis and Gas/Liquid Mixture Properties

25
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Gas/liquid properties

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Standings correlation

37
Vasquez-Beggs correlation

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 Sessions 4 and 5:
Basic concepts of two phase flow

54
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 Voil
VGas

Voil
Slip velocity VGas
between oil Voil
and gas VGas
phases
Voil
VGas

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At Low Flow Rates Liquid Accumulates in the Flowline Increasing
the Pressure Drop

Friction
Dominated
Gravity
Dominated

68
Liquid Holdup Depends on Flowline Geometry and Flowrate

69
Liquid Holdup Can Lead to Liquid Slugging

There are two types of slugging:

Hydrodynamic: Induced by the holdup and superficial velocities
Terrain: Induced by geometry changes in which liquid can accumulate

In Real Flowlines, Hydrodynamic and Terrain Slugs Can Interact:

Difficult to predict slug length and frequency

Slugging can lead to surges of liquid that can overwhelm slugcatchers

Liquid holdup leads to increased pressure drops and reduced flow

Pigs can be used to periodically remove liquid from the flowline

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two phase models for Vertical flow

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If constants are included:

79
Vertical Two phase Flow

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The Hagedorn and Brown Model

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If constants are included:

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More details and discussion on
Hagedorn and Brown
Good for slug flow regime
Inadequate for bubble and mist flow
Acceleration term is not accurate enough
The method is simple and straightforward
Liquid hold up is not accurately
correlated and most of the time physically
meaningless
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The Beggs and Brill Model

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The Duns and Ros Model

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two phase flow through restrictions and
piping components

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two phase models for horizontal flow

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Heat Transfer in a Well Column

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Two Phase Inclined Flow

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Pipeline Problems

264
Pipeline problems summary

Cause reduction/halt in production

read: lost $$money$$
What to Do?
Add specialized inhibitor for each (expensive)
Hope they do not interact (they do)
Pig the line
Be careful, pigging the line can cause pipe wall
deposition to break off into bulk fluid and cause
complete blockages to occur
 Wax Plug

Wax is precipitated out

from crude oil
Sometimes causes wax
deposition and stenosis of
the pipeline
Higher dP, reduced
production, lost revenue,
plugs possible (sound
familiar?)

http://www.hydrafact.com/images/pigging_to_remove_wax.jpg
 Wax Appearance Temperature (Cloud Point)

Helps to quantify if wax

will be a flow assurance
issue with a certain
crude Kok et. al. tested 15 crude oils with
May be able to add wax appearance T range: 17-48 C
(Measured by a viscometer)
insulation, bury
flowline, add chemicals
to prevent wax
formation
Kok, M.V., Ltoff, J.M, et al. (1996). Comparison of wax appearance
temperatures of crude oils by differential scanning calorimetry,
thermomicroscopy and viscometry. Fuel 75 (7): 787
 Definition: Pour Point

Pour Point: Temperature below which the crude will no

longer pour
Viscosity increases significantly
Usually around 4% insoluble wax

McAleese, Stuart Operational Aspects of Oil and Gas Well Testing.

Elsevier. Online version available at:
http://knovel.com/web/portal/browse/display?
_EXT_KNOVEL_DISPLAY_bookid=1945&VerticalID=0
 Wax IssuesHeres what you do
Add heater/heat exchanger
Chemical Treatments
Continuous (most popular)
Batch

McAleese, Stuart Operational Aspects of Oil and Gas Well Testing. Elsevier.
 Types of Wax Chemical Treatments

Dispersants- coat wax changing ability to

adhere to one another and pipe surfaces (like
AA)
Detergents- alter wax making it water wet
(used >20% water) changes surface tension
preventing deposition of wax
Solvents- break down the wax after an
extended soaking period
Crystal Modifiers- injected at T>cloud pt and
alter the way in which the wax forms (like KI)
McAleese, Stuart Operational Aspects of Oil and Gas Well Testing. Elsevier.
Corrosion
Corrosion Problems
Organic compounds in crude cause corrosion
Naphthenic Acids

Corrosion Problems
Arise during
Transportation
Refining
Processing

Oil Field Chemicals, Fink, Johannes Karl, Elsevier, Knovel-Library

Corrosion Solutions

Coatings
Examples: polyethylene, polypropylene, epoxy coatings

Chemical Additives
Problems with using incompatible chemicals cause severe
problems that often exceed the cost of the chemicals
Choose chemicals wisely

Oil Field Chemicals, Fink, Johannes Karl, Elsevier, Knovel-Library

Selected Corrosion Inhibitors

Oil Field Chemicals, Fink, Johannes Karl, Elsevier, Knovel-Library

Asphaltenes (P dependent)
 Asphaltene Deposition

Black, coal-like
structures
Come out of oil when
pressure conditions
(typically it is less T
dependant) increase to
critical pressure

http://www.hydrafact.com/images/asphaltene_deposition.jpg
SARA Classification
Saturates
include all hydrocarbon components with saturated (single-bonded)
carbon atoms. These are the n-alkanes, i-alkanes, and cycloalkanes
(naphthenes)
Aromatics
include benzene and all the derivatives composed of one or more
benzene rings.
Resins
are components with a highly polar end group and long alkane tails.
The polar end group is composed of aromatic and naphthenic rings
contains heteroatoms such as oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen.
Pure resins are heavy liquids or sticky solids
Asphaltenes are large highly polar components made up of
condensed aromatic and naphthenic
rings, which also contain heteroatoms.
Pure asphaltenes are black, nonvolatile powders.
Saturated
Non polar hydrocarbon non-
polar, without double bonds,
but including straight-chain
and branched alkanes,
cycloalkanes
Generally by increasing
molecular weight of oil
,number of saturated
decreases
Waxes are in this class
Aromatic

benzene (C6H6). and its structural derivates, alkyl

chains and cycloalkane rings, along with additional
aromatic rings

The carbon atoms in the ring structure are connected by six

identical
bonds that are intermediate between single and double bonds,
which are referred to as hybrid
bonds, aromatic double bonds, or benzene bonds.

bonds, aromatic double bonds, or benzene bonds.

Resin
The material that precipitates with addition of propane,
but not with n-heptane, is considered to constitute the
resins.
Resins H/C ratio are between 1.2 to 1.7
Lower MW respect to Asphaltene
Polar component
C13H10S1
Asphaltenes

Asphaltenes are defined as the components of the crude

oil which are insoluble in n-pentane
Asphaltenes are hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains with
hydrophilic polar functional groups
Asphaltene Precipitation in n-Alkanes

Precipitated asphaltene
from different n-Alkane
are different.
Asphaltene Aggregation behaviour
Asphaltene Possible Damage Place

Deep in Reservoir Matrix

Near wellbore
Production string
Pipeline transportation and Surface Facilities
Colloidal Instability Index

Collide Instability Index (CII) proposed by Yen

S aturated Asphaltene
CII
Aromatic Re sin

If CII<0.7 No problem with asphaltene

If CII>0.9 definitely have problem with asphaltene
If 0.7<CII<0.9 may have problem with asphaltene
Colloidal instability index

SARA fractionation results

Saturates Aromatics Resin/Asp

Resins Asphaltene h CII

(wt%) (wt%) (wt%) (wt%) Ratio

55.6 33.87 9.97 0.56 17.8 1.28

52.49 41.04 5.48 0.99 5.5 1.14

38.95 57.5 3.35 0.2 16.75 0.64

72.84 20.75 5.93 0.48 12.3 2.7

Isothermal Asphaltene Precipitation
Envelope in Live Oil
 Asphaltene Flocculation

Asphaltenes agglomeration (flocculation) forms large

mass structures inhibit flowrate

Deposit on pipeline wall

Can form micelles in bulk fluid

McAleese, Stuart Operational Aspects of Oil and Gas Well Testing. Elsevier.
 Asphaltene Solutions

Asphaltene Inhibitor

Solvents
Dispersants (like AA)
Oil/Dispersants/solvents

Pigging

McAleese, Stuart Operational Aspects of Oil and Gas Well Testing. Elsevier.
Pipeline problems conclusions

Cause reduction/halt in production

read: lost $$money$$
What to Do?
Add specialized inhibitor for each (expensive)
Hope they do not interact (they do)
Pig the line
Be careful, pigging the line can cause pipe wall
deposition to break off into bulk fluid and cause
complete blockages to occur
Pigs and Pigging Design

292
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A Typical Offshore Tieback

Separator
Danger Areas

Riser
Wellhead Choke Manifold

Flow Line
SSSV Jumper
Drivers:
Hydrate Avoidance Longer Tiebacks
Higher Water Cuts
Risk Management Environmental Restrictions
Well
Cost of Chemicals 298
 What is Scale Precipitation?
Precipitation of inorganic salts from formation
and injection water

Carbonates (typically from formation brine),

sulfates (typically from seawater) and
sulfides.

Affected by CO2 and H2S dissolving into the

water phase

Promoted by changes in solubility caused by

changes in pressure, temperature, and/or Heat exchanger pipe cross-section with the thick scale crust on
the inside wall.
solvent characteristics.
Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Limescale-in-pipe.jpg

Scaling by poorly soluble salts can be inhibited sterically i.e. preventing the salts
from depositing on surfaces (Not covered in PVTsim).
Original Growth Model: f CSMHyK
J. Boxall and S. Yang

Water Entrainment:
Log-normal distribution with 40m mean size

Nucleation:
Instantaneous at 6.5 F subcooling

Hydrate Shell Growth:

Kinetic equation fit to 2 flowloops, 4 oils
Thermal driving force
Rate constant = Bishnoi / 500

300
 Pigging

Gas lines in particular are periodically pigged to remove accumulated liquid

The large liquid slug is caught in a large separator called a Slug Catcher

Flow

Pig
301
Types of Pigs

Spheres:
Easy to handle.
Can be re-inflated to compensate for wear.
Negotiate irregular bends.
Little energy for movement < 2psi.

Foam Pigs:
Inexpensive and versatile.
Can be fitted with brushes to remove deposits.

Steel Pigs:
Durable with replaceable sealing elements.
Can also be equipped with brushes and blades.

Solid-Cast Pigs:
Light in weight, allow for longer and more efficient sealing.

302
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 Review of pigging-
Where is the problem?
Pigging
Wax

Pig Incline
Distance

dP typically decreases smoothly dP

during pigging as the seals
and guides of pig wear down
Wax
Gelled Pigs can carry chemical inhibitors
to the site of the problem
Distance
http://www.pipeline-inspection.com/pages/wax.html
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Pig Launcher

307
Pig Receiver Station

308
Flow Assurance

309
A Typical Offshore Tieback

Separator
Danger Areas

Riser
Wellhead Choke Manifold

Flow Line
SSSV Jumper
Drivers:
Hydrate Avoidance Longer Tiebacks
Higher Water Cuts
Risk Management Environmental Restrictions
Well
Cost of Chemicals 310
Original Growth Model: f CSMHyK
J. Boxall and S. Yang

Water Entrainment:
Log-normal distribution with 40m mean size

Nucleation:
Instantaneous at 6.5 F subcooling

Hydrate Shell Growth:

Kinetic equation fit to 2 flowloops, 4 oils
Thermal driving force
Rate constant = Bishnoi / 500

311
 Sessions 5 and 6:
Gas Hydrates and CSM-Gem

312
 Typical stable hydrate structures

sI cubic

sII cubic

sH hexagonal

W. Mao et al, Physics Today 2007

313
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Effect of guest molecule size

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Typical Hydrate Equilibrium Curve

Thermal driving force

Sub cooling

Pressure driving force

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Hydrate Prevention

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Hydrate Remediation

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WAX

339
Wax Definition
Solid that precipitates when oil is cooled
typically below 80C (176 F)
Paraffinic and naphtenic molecules
Wax deposition
pipelines and process equipment
wells (rare)
not in reservoirs
Typical WAT/Cloud Points
Type of fluid C
Oil 31
Oil 39
Oil 41
Gas Condensate 48
Oil 40
Oil 39
Oil 35
Oil 38
Oil 36
Oil 41
Oil 22
Gas Condensate 32
Oil 34
Oil 35
Oil 37
Oil 39
Rnningsen et al. (1991)
 Phase Diagram - Wax

14000
1 Solubility effect.
12000 L+Wax L Dissolved gas acts
10000 as wax solvent
2
8000 Wax app. T
P/ psi

6000
Sat P 2 Volumetric effect.
4000
Volume increase
2000 1 when melting wax
L+Vap+Wax L+Vap
0
0 50 100 150 200
T / F
Modeling of Wax Precipitation

Vapor
Vapor f iV yi iV P ; iV from EOS

Liquid
f i L xi iL P ; iL from EOS
Liquid
Wax
Solid (wax) f i S si f i oS ; ideal solution
(Pedersen & Rnningsen)
f iV f i L f i S i 1, 2 , ..., N
Effect of Pressure on WAT
Effect of Gas on WAT
 Non-Newtonian
6
Viscosity Effects
1.25
5
1.20
III Decreasing temperature
4 II
viscosity (cP)

1.15

V isco sity, cP
3 1.10

1.05
2
I 1.00

1 0.95

0.90
0
0.85
280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350
0.80
T (K) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Shear Rate, 1/s

I II III


E wax F 4

liq exp(D wax ) wax

dv dv x
x
dy dy

Scale Formation

347
 What is Scale Precipitation?
Precipitation of inorganic salts from formation
and injection water

Carbonates (typically from formation brine),

sulfates (typically from seawater) and
sulfides.

Affected by CO2 and H2S dissolving into the

water phase

Promoted by changes in solubility caused by

changes in pressure, temperature, and/or Heat exchanger pipe cross-section with the thick scale crust on
the inside wall.
solvent characteristics.
Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Limescale-in-pipe.jpg

Scaling by poorly soluble salts can be inhibited sterically i.e. preventing the salts
from depositing on surfaces (Not covered in PVTsim).
Importance of Scale Precipitation
Practical problem for the
petroleum industry

Once deposited, scale is

removed mechanically by e.g.
grinding or chemically by e.g. acid
treatment.
Barium sulfate crystals growing in a pipe under the North Sea.
(Growths of this size can occur in less than 24 hours).

Pipes with severe scale deposition Ref:

http://bittooth.blogspot.com/2010/05/crystals-and-gulf-of-mexic

are usually descommissioned.

o-blowout.html
Normal vs. Retrograde Solubility
Normal Solubility: Retrograde Solubility:
NaCl Ce2(SO4)3
KCl CaSO4
CaCl2 Etc.
Etc.

Ref: http://www.instructables.com/id/Making-a-Saline-or- Ref: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fouling#Precipitation_fouling

Hydroxide- solution/step3/How-much-chemical-do-I-
need-Solubility-/
 Modeling Scale Precipitation in PVTsim
CO2 and H2S diffusion: Gas
Amounts consumed by scale formation
Oil
are negligible, i.e. concentration of
CO2/H2S in the aqueous phase assumed Aqueous
constant.

Pressure and temperature changes:

Expressed through reaction equilibrium constants K.

Fluid (In)compatibility:
Between injected seawater and formation brine.
Thermodynamic Equilibria Considered
Carbonates Sulphates
H2O(l) + CO2(aq) H+ + HCO3- Ca++ + SO4-- CaSO4(s)

HCO3- H+ + CO3-- Ba++ + SO4-- BaSO4(s)

Ca++ + CO3-- CaCO3(s) Sr++ + SO4-- SrSO4(s)

Fe++ + CO3-- FeCO3(s)

Organic Acids
Sulphides HA(aq) H+ + A-
H2S(aq) H+ + HS-
Auto protolysis
Fe + HS H + FeS(s)
++ - +
H2O(l) H+ + OH-
 Mathematical Model
Each equilibrium has an equilibrium constant - K:
Ca++ (aq) + SO4 (aq) CaSO4(s)
K sp (CaSO4 ) aCa
eq
2 a eq
SO 2
eq
m eq
eq
m eq
Ca 2 Ca 2 SO 2 SO 2
4 4 4

Activity coefficient: 1 for m 0

Ion product: Y (CaSO4 ) aCa aSO Ca mCa SO mSO
2 2
4
2 2 2
4
2
4

Precipitation
K under saturated

Y K equilibrium
K super saturated


Activities in Ionic Solutions
- - r
+ - + -
- + - +
- + - +
-

Ecoulomb r 1

Ionic interactions dominate non-ideality

Activity coefficient models suitable for salts
Activity Coefficient Models
Activity coefficients for ions in aqueous solution
log q q AI
Debye-Hckel limiting law:
I 1
2 i mi
i
q 2

A 0.509 at 25 C

Pitzer (1973,1975,1979,1984,1986):
f (m, z , parameters )
Scale Precipitation in Wellbores
Reservoir Fluid Analysis

Components of primary interest

when evaluating scale precipitation
Formation Brine/Seawater Ion Analysis

Seawater contains
seven times more
sulphate than formation
brine
Bottomhole Scale Evaluation
Scale Precipitation with Sea Water injection

700

600

500

400

BaSO4

185 bara 300 CaSO4

CaCO3
142C
200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Vol. % Sea Water
Mid Wellbore Scale Evaluation
Scale Precipitation with Sea Water injection

700

600

60 bara 500

130C
400
BaSO4
SrSO4
300 CaSO4
CaCO3

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Vol. % Sea Water
Top Wellbore Scale Evaluation
Scale Precipitation with Sea Water injection

30 bara 450

117C 400

350

300

250
BaSO4
SrSO4
200
CaSO4
CaCO3
150

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Vol. % Sea Water
Topside Scale Evaluation
Scale Precipitation with Sea Water injection

350

300

250

8 bara
60C 200

BaSO4
150 CaCO3

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Vol. % Sea Water
 Sessions 13 and 14:
PIPEPHSE, OLGA and pvt-sim

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