Object-Oriented Software Design: Dr. R. Mall

Object-Oriented
Software Design (lecture 7)
Dr. R. Mall
1
Organization of this
Lecture
 Brief review of last lecture
 Introduction to object-oriented
concepts
 Object modelling using Unified
Modelling Language (UML)
 Object-oriented software
development and patterns
 Summary
2
Review of Last Lecture
 Last lecture we started
 with an introduction to function-
oriented design.
 We looked at goals of structured
analysis (SA)
 Result of SA (i.e. DFD)
3
 We looked at DFD modelling
techniques
 We looked at importance of Data

Dictionary
4
 We looked at balancing a DFD
 During structured design (SD),
transformation of DFD to structure
chart
 Also we discussed few examples of
structured analysis & structured
design
5
Object-oriented Concepts
 Object-oriented (OO) design
techniques are becoming popular:
 Inception in early 1980’s and nearing
maturity.
 Widespread acceptance in industry
and academics
 Unified Modelling Language (UML)
poised to become a standard for
modelling OO systems
6
 Basic Mechanisms:
 Objects:
 A real-world entity.
 A system is designed as a set of interacting
objects.
 Consists of data (attributes) and functions
(methods) that operate on data
 Hides organization of internal information
(Data abstraction)
 Examples: an employee, a book etc.
7
m8 m7
mi are methods
of the object
m1 m6
Data
m2 m5
Object
m3 m4
Model of an object
8
 Class:
 Instances are objects
 Template for object creation
 Sometimes not intended to produce
instances (abstract classes)
 Considered as abstract data type (ADT)
 Examples: set of all employees, different
types of book
9
 Methods and message:
 Operations supported by an object
 Means for manipulating the data of
other objects
 Invoked by sending message
 Examples: calculate_salary, issue-
book, member_details, etc.
10
 Inheritance:
 Allows to define a new class (derived
class) by extending or modifying existing
class (base class)
 Represents Generalization-
specialization relationship
 Allows redefinition of the existing
methods (method overriding)
11
 Multiple Inheritance:
 Subclass can inherit attributes and
methods from more than one base class
 Multiple inheritance is represented by

arrows drawn from the subclass to each of
the base classes
12
LibraryMember Base Class LibraryMember Base Class
Derived
Faculty Students Staff Faculty Students Staff
Classes
Multiple
Inheritance
UnderGrad PostGrad Research UnderGrad PostGrad Research
13
 Key Concepts:
 Abstraction:
 Consider aspects relevant for certain
purpose
 Suppress non-relevant aspects
 Supported at two levels i.e. class level
where base class is an abstraction &
object level where object is a data
abstraction entity
14
 Advantages of abstraction:
 Reduces complexity of software
 Increases software productivity
 It is shown that software
productivity is inversely proportional
to software complexity
15
 Encapsulation:
 Objects communicate outside world
through messages
 Objects data encapsulated within its
methods
16
m4
m3
m5
m2 Data
m6
m1
Methods
Concept of encapsulation
17
 Polymorphism:
 Denotes to poly (many) morphism
(forms)
 Same message result in different
actions by different objects (static
binding)
18
 Example of static binding:
 Class Circle{
 private float x, y, radius;
 private int fillType;

 public create ();
 public create (float x, float y, float centre);
 public create (float x, float y, float centre, int
fillType);
 }
19
 In this example:
 A class named Circle has three definitions
for create operation
 Without any parameter, default
 Centre and radius as parameter
20
 In this example:
 Centre, radius and filltype as parameter
 Depending upon parameters given,

method will be invoked
 Method create is overloaded
21
 Dynamic binding:
 In inheritance hierarchy, an object can be
assigned to another object of its ancestor class
 A method call to an ancestor object would

result in the invocation of appropriate method
of object of the derived class
22
 Dynamic binding:
 Exact method cannot be known at compile
time
 Dynamically decided at runtime
23
 Example of dynamic binding:
 Consider class hierarchy of different
geometric objects
 Now display method is declared in
the shape class and overridden in
each derived class
 A single call to the display method
for each object would take care
displaying appropriate element
24
Shape
Circle Rectangle Line
Ellipse Square
Cube
Class hierarchy of geometric objects
25
Traditional code Object-oriented code
If (shape == Circle) then Shape.draw();

draw_circle();
else if (shape == Rectangle) then -
draw_rectangle(); -
-
- -
-
-
-
Traditional code and OO code using dynamic binding

26
 Advantages of dynamic binding:
 Leads to elegant programming
 Facilitates code reuse and
maintenance
 New objects can be added with
minimal changes to existing objects
27
 Composite objects:
 Object containing other objects
 Composition limited to tree hierarchy

i.e. no circular inclusion relation
 Inheritance hierarchy different from

containment hierarchy
28
 Composite objects:
 Inheritance hierarchy, different object
types with similar features
 Containment allows construction of

complex objects
29
 Genericity:
 Ability to parameterize class definitions
 Example: class stack of different types of
elements such as integer, character and
floating point stack
 Generacity permits to define generic class
stack and later instantiate as required
30
Advantages
of Object-oriented design
 Code and design reuse
 Increased productivity
 Ease of testing & maintenance
 Better understandability
 Its agreed that increased
productivity is chief advantage
31
Advantages
of Object-oriented design
 Initially incur higher costs, but
after completion of some projects
reduction in cost become possible
 Well-established OO methodology
and environment can be managed
with 20-50% of traditional cost
of development
32
Object
modelling using UML
 UML is a modelling language
 Not a system design or
development methodology
 Used to document object-
oriented analysis and design
 Independent of any specific
design methodology
33
Unified Modelling Language
(UML)
 Origin
 In late 1980s and early 1990s
different software development
houses were using different
notations
 Developed in early 1990s to
standardize the large number of
object-oriented modelling notations
34
UML
 Based Principally on
 OMT [Rumbaugh 1991]
 Booch’s methodology[Booch 1991]
 OOSE [Jacobson 1992]
 Odell’s methodology[Odell 1992]
 Shlaer and Mellor [Shlaer 1992]
35
UML
OMT
UML
Booch
OOSE Methodology
Different object modelling techniques in UML
36
UML
 As a Standard
 Adopted by Object Management
Group (OMG) in 1997
 OMG an association of industries
 Promote consensus notations and
techniques
 Used outside software development,
example car manufacturing
37
Why UML is required?
 Model is required to capture only
important aspects
 UML a graphical modelling tool, easy
to understand and construct
 Helps in managing complexity
38
UML diagrams
 Nine diagrams to capture
different views of a system
 Provide different perspectives of
the software system
 Diagrams can be refined to get
the actual implementation of the
system
39
UML diagrams
 Views of a system
 User’s view
 Structural view
 Behavioral view
 Implementation view
 Environmental view
40
UML diagrams
Behavioural View
Structural View - Sequence Diagram
- Class Diagram - Collaboration Diagram
- Object Diagram
- State-chart Diagram
- Activity Diagram
User’s View
-Use Case
Diagram
Implementation View Environmental View

- Component Diagram - Deployment Diagram
Diagrams and views in UML
41
Are all views required?
 NO
 Use case model, class diagram and one
of the interaction diagram for a simple
system
 State chart diagram in case of many
state changes
 Deployment diagram in case of large
number of hardware components
42
Use Case model
 Consists of set of “use cases”
 An important analysis and design
artifact
 Other models must confirm to this
model
 Not really an object-oriented model
 Represents a functional or process
model
43
Use Cases
 Different ways in which system can be used
by the users
 Corresponds to the high-level requirements
 Represents transaction between the user and
the system
 Define behavior without revealing internal
structure of system
 Set of related scenarios tied together by a
common goal
44
Use Cases
 Normally, use cases are independent
of each other
 Implicit dependencies may exist
 Example: In Library Automation
System, renew-book & reserve-book
are independent use cases. But in
actual implementation of renew-book,
a check is made to see if any book has
been reserved using reserve-book
45
Example of
Use Cases
 For library information system
 issue-book
 Query-book
 Return-book
 Create-member
 Add-book, etc.
46
Representation of
Use Cases
 Represented by use case diagram
 Use case is represented by ellipse
 System boundary is represented by
rectangle
 Users are represented by stick
person icon (actor)
 Communication relationship
between actor and use case by line
 External system by stereotype
47
Example of
Use Cases
Play Move
Player Tic-tac-toe game
Use case model
48
Why develop
Use Case diagram?
 Serves as requirements specification
 Users identification helps in
implementing security mechanism
through login system
 Another use in preparing the
documents (e.g. user’s manual)
49
Factoring
Use Cases
 Complex use cases need to be factored
into simpler use cases
 Represent common behavior across
different use cases
 Three ways of factoring
 Generalization
 Includes
 Extends
50
Factoring Using
Generalization
Pay membership fee
Pay through credit card Pay through library pay card
Use case generalization
51
Factoring Using
Includes
<<include>> Common
Base use case
use case
Use case inclusion
Base use case Base use case
<<include>>
<<include>>
<<include>> <<include>>
Base use case Base use case Base use case
Paralleling model 52
Factoring Using
Extends
Base <<extends>> Common

use case use case
Use case extension
53
Hierarchical Organization
of Use Cases
use case 1 use case 3
External users
use case 2
use case 3.1 use case 3.3

Subsystems
use case 3. 2
use case 1 use case 3

Method
use case 2
Hierarchical organization of use cases

54
Use Case Packaging
Accounts
Print
Query balance
Balance sheet
Receive Make
grant payments
Use case packaging
55
Class diagram
 Describes static structure of a system
 Main constituents are classes and their
relationships:
 Generalization
 Aggregation
 Association
 Various kinds of dependencies
56
Class diagram
 Entities with common features, i.e.
attributes and operations
 Classes are represented as solid
outline rectangle with compartments
 Compartments for name, attributes &
operations
 Attribute and operation compartment
are optional for reuse purpose
57
Example of
Class diagram
LibraryMember LibraryMember LibraryMember

Member Name Member Name
Membership Number Membership Number
Address Address
Phone Number Phone Number
E-Mail Address E-Mail Address
Membership Admission Date Membership Admission Date
Membership Expiry Date Membership Expiry Date
Books Issued Books Issued
issueBook( );
findPendingBooks( );
findOverdueBooks( );
returnBook( );
findMembershipDetails( );
Different representations of the LibraryMember class
58
Association Relationship
 Enable objects to communicate with
each other
 Usually binary but more classes can be
involved
 Class can have relationship with itself
(recursive association)
 Arrowhead used along with name,
indicates direction of association
 Multiplicity indicates # of instances
59
Association Relationship
Library Member
1 borrowed by * Book
Association between two classes
60
Aggregation Relationship
 Represent a whole-part relationship
 Represented by diamond symbol at
the composite end
 Cannot be reflexive(i.e. recursive)
 Not symmetric
 It can be transitive
61
Aggregation Relationship
1 * 1
Document Paragraph * Line
Representation of aggregation
62
Composition Relationship
 Life of item is same as the order
1 *
Order Item
Representation of composition
63
Inheritance Relationship
Library
Book
issuable reference
Issuable Reference
Issuable Reference
Single Volume Single Volume
BookSet BookSet
Book Book
Representation of the inheritance relationship
64
Class Dependency
Dependent Class Independent Class
Representation of dependence between class
65
Object diagram
LibraryMember LibraryMember LibraryMember
Mritunjay Mritunjay
B10028 B10028
C-108, Laksmikant Hall C-108, Laksmikant Hall
1119 1119
Mrituj@cse Mrituj@cse
25-02-04 25-02-04
25-03-06 25-03-06
NIL NIL
IssueBook( );
findPendingBooks( );
findOverdueBooks( );
returnBook( );
findMembershipDetails( );
Different representations of the LibraryMember object
66
Interaction diagram
 Models how groups of objects
collaborate to realize some behaviour
 Typically each interaction diagram

realizes behaviour of a single use case
67
Interaction diagram
 Two kinds: Sequence &
Collaboration
 Two diagrams are equivalent but

portrays different perspective
 These diagram play a very important

role in the design process
68
Sequence diagram
 Shows interaction among objects as two-
dimensional chart
 Objects are shown as boxes at top
 If object created during execution then
shown at appropriate place
 Objects existence are shown as
dashed lines (lifeline)
 Objects activeness, shown as
rectangle on lifeline
69
Sequence diagram
 Messages are shown as arrows
 Message labelled with message name
 Message can be labelled with control
information
 Two types of control information:
condition ([]) & an iteration (*)
70
Example of
Sequence diagram
:Library
:Library
:Library Book :Library
Book :Book
Boundary Renewal Member
Register
Controller
renewBook find MemberBorrowing

displayBorrowing
selectBooks bookSelected
* find
[reserved]
[reserved] apology
update
apology
confirm
confirm
updateMemberBorrowing
Sequence Diagram for the renew book use case

71
Collaboration diagram
 Shows both structural and behavioural
aspects
 Objects are collaborator, shown as boxes
 Messages between objects shown as a solid
line
 Message is shown as a labelled arrow
placed near the link
 Messages are prefixed with sequence
numbers to show relative sequencing
72
Example of
Collaboration diagram
6: * find
:Library
Book :Book
[reserved] Register
9: update
8: apology 5: book 10: confirm
Selected
1: renewBook :Library [reserved]
:Library Book 7: apology
Boundary 3: display Renewal
Borrowing Controller
4: selectBooks
2: findMemberBorrowing
12: confirm
:Library
Member
updateMemberBorrowing
Collaboration Diagram for the renew book use case

73
Activity diagram
 New concept, possibly based on event
diagram of Odell [1992]
 Represent processing activity, may not

correspond to methods
 Activity is a state with an internal

action and one/many outgoing
transition
74
Activity diagram
 Can represent parallel activity and
synchronization aspects
 Swim lanes enable to group activities

based on who is performing them
 Example: academic department vs.

hostel
75
Activity diagram
 Normally employed in business process
modelling
 Carried out during requirement analysis

and specification
 Can be used to develop interaction

diagrams
76
Example of
Activity diagram
Academic Section Accounts Section Hostel Office Hospital Department
check
student
records
receive
fees
allot create
hostel hospital
record
register
receive
in
fees
course
conduct
allot medical
room examination
issue
identity card
Activity diagram for student admission procedure at IIT
77
State Chart diagram
 Based on the work of David Harel
[1990]
 Model how the state of an object

changes in its lifetime
 Based on finite state machine (FSM)

formalism
78
State Chart diagram
 State chart avoids problem of state
explosion as in FSM
 Hierarchical model of a system,

represents composite state (nested)
79
State Chart diagram
 Elements of state chart diagram
 Initial State: Filled circle
 Final State: Filled circle inside larger
circle
 State: Rectangle with rounded corners
 Transitions: Arrow between states,
also boolean logic condition (guard)
80
Example of
State Chart diagram
order received
Unprocessed
Order
[reject] checked [accept] checked
Rejected Accepted
Order Order
[some items available]
[some items not processed / deliver
available] processed
[all items
Pending available] Fulfilled
Order newsupply Order
Example: State chart diagram for an order object

81
Object-oriented
Software Design & Patterns
 Objects are identified by examining nouns
in problem description
 Many OOD techniques are proposed by Grady
Booch [1991]
 From requirements specification, initial
model is developed (OOA)
 Analysis model is refined into a design model
 Design model is implemented using OO
concepts
82
Object-oriented
Software Design Process
User interface
Use case Interaction
Issues or GUI
diagram diagram
prototype
Start
SRS document Domain model Class diagram Code
Glossary
83
Domain Modelling
 Representation of concepts or objects
appearing in the problem domain
 Also captures relationships among
objects
 Three types of objects are identified
 Boundary objects
 Entity objects
 Controller objects
84
Boundary Objects
 Interacts with actors
 Includes screens, menus, forms,
dialogs etc.
 Do not perform processing but
validates, formats etc.
 Interface class term used for these in
Java, COM/DCOM & UML
85
Entity Objects
 Hold information such as data tables &
files, e.g. Book, BookRegister
 Many of these are dumb servers
 Responsible for storing data, fetching

data etc.
86
Controller Objects
 Coordinate the activities of a set of
entity objects
 Interface with the boundary objects
 Realizes use case
 Embody most of the logic involved
with the use case realization
 There can be more than one controller
87
Use Case Realization
Boundary 1 Controller Boundary 2
Entity 1 Entity 2 Entity 3
Realization of use case through the collaboration of

Boundary, controller and entity objects
88
Class-Responsibility-
Collaborator(CRC) Cards
 Pioneered by Ward Cunningham and
Kent Beck
 Index cards prepared one each per
class
 Responsibility is written on these
cards
 Responsibility of collaborating object
is also written
89
Class-Responsibility-
Collaborator(CRC) Cards
 Interaction diagrams are developed by
flipping through CRC cards
 Required for complex use cases
 Team members participate to

determine responsibility of classes
involved in the use case realization
90
Example: CRC Cards
Class name
BookRegister
BookRegister BookRegister
Responsibility Collaborator
CRC card for the BookRegister class
91
Design Patterns
 Standard solutions to commonly
recurring problems
 Provides a good solution to model
 Pattern has four important parts
 The problem
 The context (problem)
 The solution
 The context (solution)
92
Example Pattern
 Expert
 Problem: Which class should be
responsible for doing certain things
 Solution: Assign responsibility to the
class that has the information
necessary to fulfil the required
responsibility
93
Example Pattern
 Creator
 Problem: Which class should be
responsible for creating a new instance
of some class?
 Solution: Assign a class C1 the
responsibility to create class C2 if
 C1 is an aggregation of objects of
type C2
 C1 contains object of type C2
94
Example Pattern
 Controller
 Problem: Who should be responsible
for handling the actor requests?
 Solution: Separate controller object for
each use case.
95
Example Pattern
 Facade
 Problem: How should the services be
requested from a service package?
 Context (problem): A package
(cohesive set of classes), example:
RDBMS interface package
 Solution: A class (DBfacade) can be
created which provides a common
interface to the services of the package
96
Example 1: Tic-Tac-Toe
Computer Game
 A human player and the computer make
alternate moves on a 3 3 square.
 A move consists of marking a previously
unmarked square.
 The user inputs a number between 1
and 9 to mark a square
 Whoever is first to place three
consecutive marks along a straight line
(i.e., along a row, column, or diagonal)
on the square wins.
97
Example 1: Tic-Tac-Toe
Computer Game
 As soon as either of the human player or
the computer wins,
 a message announcing the winner should be
displayed.
 If neither player manages to get three
consecutive marks along a straight line,
 and all the squares on the board are filled up,
 then the game is drawn.
 The computer always tries to win a
game.
98
Example 1: Use Case Model
Play Move
Player Tic-tac-toe game
99
Example 1: Initial and Refined
Domain Model
Board
Initial domain model
PlayMoveBoundary PlayMoveController Board
Refined domain model
100
Example 1: Sequence Diagram
:playMove :playMove
:board
Boundary Controller
acceptMove checkMoveValidity
move
[invalidMove] [invalidMove]
announceInvalidMove
announceInvalidMove
checkWinner
[game over]
[game over] announceResult
announceResult
playMove
checkWinner
[game over] [game over]

announceResult announceResult
displayBoardPositions getBoardPositions
[game not over]

promptNextMove
Sequence Diagram for the play move use case

101
Example 1: Class Diagram
Board PlayMoveBoundary
int position[9]
checkMove Validity announceInvalidMove

checkResult announceResult
playMove displayBoard
Controller
announceInvalidMove
announceResult
102
Example 2: Supermarket Prize
Scheme
 Supermarket needs to develop
software to encourage regular
customers.
 Customer needs to supply his
residence address, telephone
number, and the driving licence
number.
 Each customer who registers is
assigned a unique customer
number (CN) by the computer.
103
Scheme
 A customer can present his CN to
the staff when he makes any
purchase.
 The value of his purchase is
credited against his CN.
 At the end of each year, the
supermarket awards surprise gifts
to ten customers who make highest
purchase.
104
Scheme
 Also, it awards a 22 carat gold coin
to every customer whose purchases
exceed Rs. 10,000.
 The entries against the CN are reset
on the last day of every year after
the prize winner’s lists are
generated.
105
Example 2: Use Case Model
register
Customer customer Clerk
register
sales
Sales Clerk
select
winners
Supermarket
Prize scheme
Manager
106
Example 2: Initial Domain
Model
SalesHistory CustomerRegister
1 1
* *
SalesRecords CustomerRecord
Initial domain model
107
Example 2: Refined Domain
Model
1 1
* *
RegisterCustomerBoundary RegisterCustomerController
RegisterSalesBoundary RegisterSalesController
SelectWinnersBoundary SelectWinnersControllers
Refined domain model

108
Example 2: Sequence Diagram for
the Select Winners Use Case
:SelectWinner :SelectWinner :Sales :Sales :Customer :Customer
Boundary Controller History Record Register Record
Select
SelectWinners
Winners
SelectWinners
*computeSales
*browse
[for each winner]

find WinnerDetails [for each winner]
announces
browse
Sequence Diagram for the select winners use case

109
the Register Customer Use Case
:SelectWinner :SelectWinner :Customer :Customer
Boundary Controller Register Record
register
register
checkDuplicate
*match
[duplicate]
showError
generateCIN
create
register :Customer
Record
displayCIN
Sequence Diagram for the register customer use case

110
the Register Sales Use Case
:Register :Register
:Sales
Sales Sales
History
Boundary Controller
RegisterSales registerSales
registerSales
create :Sales
Record
confirm
confirm
Sequence Diagram for the register sales use case
111
the Register Sales Use Case
:Register
:Sales
Sales
History
Boundary
registerSales
RegisterSales
create :Sales
Record
confirm
Refined Sequence Diagram for the register sales use case
112
Example 1: Class Diagram
selectWinners findWinnerDetails
registerSales register
1 1
* *
salesDetails name
address
computerSales browse
browse checkDuplicate
create create
113
Summary
 We discussed object-oriented
concepts
 Basic mechanisms: Such as objects,
class, methods, inheritance etc.
 Key concepts: Such as abstraction,
encapsulation, polymorphism,
composite objects etc.
114
Summary
 We discussed an important OO language
UML
 Its origin, as a standard, as a model
 Use case representation, its factorisation
such as generalization, includes and extends
 Different diagrams for UML representation
 In class diagram we discussed some
relationships association, aggregation,
composition and inheritance
115
Summary
 Some more diagrams such as
interaction diagrams (sequence and
collaboration), activity diagrams,
state chart diagram
 We discussed OO software
development process and patterns
 In this we discussed some patterns
example and domain modelling
116

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Object-Oriented

Software Design (lecture 7)

 We looked at importance of Data

 Multiple inheritance is represented by

LibraryMember Base Class LibraryMember Base Class

UnderGrad PostGrad Research UnderGrad PostGrad Research

 Without any parameter, default

 Centre and radius as parameter

 Depending upon parameters given,

 Method create is overloaded

 A method call to an ancestor object would

 Dynamically decided at runtime

Circle Rectangle Line

Class hierarchy of geometric objects

Traditional code Object-oriented code

If (shape == Circle) then Shape.draw();

Traditional code and OO code using dynamic binding

 Composition limited to tree hierarchy

 Inheritance hierarchy different from

 Containment allows construction of

Different object modelling techniques in UML

Implementation View Environmental View

Diagrams and views in UML

Player Tic-tac-toe game

Use case model

Pay membership fee

Pay through credit card Pay through library pay card

Use case generalization

Use case inclusion

Base use case Base use case

Base use case Base use case Base use case

Base <<extends>> Common

Use case extension

use case 3.1 use case 3.3

use case 1 use case 3

Hierarchical organization of use cases

Use case packaging

LibraryMember LibraryMember LibraryMember

Different representations of the LibraryMember class

Association between two classes

 Life of item is same as the order

Representation of the inheritance relationship

Dependent Class Independent Class

Representation of dependence between class

LibraryMember LibraryMember LibraryMember

Different representations of the LibraryMember object

 Typically each interaction diagram

 Two diagrams are equivalent but

 These diagram play a very important

renewBook find MemberBorrowing

Sequence Diagram for the renew book use case

Collaboration Diagram for the renew book use case

 Represent processing activity, may not

 Activity is a state with an internal

 Swim lanes enable to group activities

 Example: academic department vs.

 Carried out during requirement analysis

 Can be used to develop interaction