CHAPTER TWO

TURNING AND RELATED

OPERATIONS
 INTRODUCTION

Turning: is the process of machining external

cylindrical and conical surfaces.
- The process uses a machine tool called a
lathe.
A lathe: is a large machine that rotates the
work, and cutting is done with a non-rotating
cutting tool.
-The shapes cut are generally round, or helical.
- The tool is typically moved parallel to the axis
of rotation during cutting.
 TYPES OF LATHES

1- General purpose machines: center lathes,

universal lathes, turret lathes and the vertical
lathes.
2- High production machines: multiple tool,
semiautomatic and NC / CNC machines.
3- Single purpose and specialized lathes.
CENTER LATHE
General classifications used when
describing lathes are:
1- Swing : the largest diameter of work that can
be rotated.
2- Distance between centers: the longest
length of workpiece
3- Length of bed: related to the distance
between centers
4- Power: the range of speeds and feeds, and
the horsepower available
 Lathe Operations and Relevant Tools
Lathe Operation Sketch and Directions
and Relevant Tool of Cutting Movements

1- Cylindrical turning with a

straight shank turning tool
2- Taper turning with a straight-
shank turning tool

3. Facing of a WP with:
a. Facing tool while the WP is
clamped by a half center
b. Facing tool while the WP is
mounted in a chuck
 Lathe Operation Sketch and Directions
and Relevant Tool of Cutting Movements

4. Finish turning with:

a. Broad-nose finishing tool
b. Straight finishing tool with a
nose radius

5. Necking or recessing with:

a. Recessing tool
b. Wide recessing tool
c. Wide recessing using
narrow recessing tool

6. Parting off with parting-

off tool
 Lathe Operation Sketch and Directions
and Relevant Tool of Cutting Movements

7. Boring of cylindrical hole with:

a. Bent rough-boring tool
b. Bent finish-boring tool

8. Threading with:
a. External threading tool
b. Internal threading tool
 Lathe Operation Sketch and Directions
and Relevant Tool of Cutting Movements

9. Drilling and core drilling with

a twist drill:
a. Originating with a twist drill
b. Enlarging with a twist drill
c. Enlarging with a core drill

10. Forming with:

a. Straight forming tool
b. Flat dovetailed tool
c. Circular form tool
Tapered surfaces are turned by employing
one of the following methods

a - By swiveling the compound rest to the

required angle .
b - By using a straight-edge broad-nose tool.
c - By setting over the tailstock.
d - By using a taper-turning attachment.
a - By swiveling the compound rest to the required angle
- Before performing the
operation, the
compound rest is to be
clamped in this
position.
- The tool is fed manually
by rotating handle (1).
- This method is used for
turning short internal
and external tapers
with large taper angles,
while the work is
commonly held in a
chuck and a straight
turning tool is used
b - By using a straight-edge broad-nose tool
- The tool of width
that exceeds the
taper being turned
is cross-fed.
- The work is held in a
chuck or clamped
on a faceplate.
c - By setting over the tailstock:
The angle of taper
should not exceed
8.
Since the turned
surface is parallel
to the spindle
axis, the powered
feed of the
carriage can be
used while the
work is to be
mounted between
centers.
Tailstock
d - By using a taper-turning attachment
- This is best suited
for long tapered
work.
- The cross slide (1)
is disengaged
from the cross
feed screw and is
linked through the
tie (2) to the slide
(3).
Taper turning attachment
Workpiece Holders
(a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in
type collets.
(b) The workpiece is placed in the collets hole,
and the conical surfaces of the collets are
forced inwards by pulling it with a draw bar
into the sleeve.
(c) A push-out type collets.
(d) Workholding of a workpiece on a face plate.
(a)

(b)
(a) and (b) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in type collets.

(c (

(d)
(c) A push-out type collets. (d) Workholding of a workpiece
on a face plate.
Mandrels to Hold Workpieces for Turning
d- Expansion Mandrel Type
Cutting tool geometry
Cutting tool geometry
 Cutting tool angles and their significance
The Rake Angles
- The rake angle is always at the topside of the tool.
- The side rake angle and the back rake angle combine to
form the effective rake angle. This is also called true rake
angle or resultant rake angle of the tool.
The basic tool geometry is determined by the rake angle
of the tool. Rake angle has two major effects during the
metal cutting process.
- One major effect of rake angle is its influence on tool
strength. A tool with negative rake will withstand far more
loading than a tool with positive rake.
- The other major effect of rake angle is its influence on
cutting pressure. A tool with a positive rake angle reduces
cutting forces by allowing the chips to flow more freely
across the rake surface.
Positive and negative rake angles
Back rake angle:
The back rake angle is the angle between the face of
the tool and a line parallel to the base of the shank in a
plane parallel to the side cutting edge.
The back rake angle affects the ability of the tool to
shear the work material and form chip.
Side Rake Angle:
It is the angle by which the face of the tool is inclined
side ways.
The rake angle has the following function:
It allows the chip to flow in convenient direction.
It reduces the cutting force required to shear the metal
and consequently helps to increase the tool life and
reduce the power consumption. It provides keenness to
the cutting edge.
It improves the surface finish.
 Relief Angles
Relief angles are provided to minimize physical
interference or rubbing contact with machined surface
and the work piece.
Relief angles are for the purpose of helping to eliminate
tool breakage and to increase tool life.
If the relief angle is too large, the cutting tool may chip
or break. If the angle is too small, the tool will rub against
the workpiece and generate excessive heat and this will
in turn, cause premature dulling of the cutting tool.
Small relief angles are essential when machining hard
and strong materials and they should be increased for
the weaker and softer materials.
A smaller angle should be used for interrupted cuts or
heavy feeds, and a larger angle for semi-finish and finish
cuts.
Side relief angle: it prevents the side flank of the tool
from rubbing against the work when longitudinal feed
is given. Larger feed will require greater side relief
angle.
End relief angle: it prevents the side flank of the tool
from rubbing against the work. A minimum relief angle
is given to provide maximum support to the tool
cutting edge by increasing the lip angle. The front
clearance angle should be increased for large
diameter works
Side cutting edge angle:
The following are the advantages of increasing this
angle:
It increases tool life as, for the same depth of cut; the
cutting force is distributed on a wider surface.
It diminishes the chip thickness for the same amount of
feed and permits greater cutting speed.
It dissipates heat quickly for having wider cutting edge.
The side cutting edge angle of the tool has practically
no effect on the value of the cutting force or power
consumed for a given depth of cut and feed.
Large side cutting edge
angles are lightly to cause
the tool to chatter.
End cutting edge angle:
- Its function is to prevent the trailing front cutting edge
of the tool from rubbing against the work. A large end
cutting edge angle unnecessarily weakens the tool.
- It varies from 8 to 15 degrees.
Nose radius:
The nose of a tool is slightly rounded in all turning tools.
The function of nose radius is as follows:
Greater nose radius clears up the feed marks caused
by the previous shearing action and provides better
surface finish. All finish turning tool have greater nose
radius than rough turning tools. It increases the strength
of the cutting edge, tends to minimize the wear taking
place in a sharp pointed tool with consequent increase
in tool life. Accumulation heat is less than that in a
pointed tool which permits higher cutting speeds.
 Tool signature
- It is the system of designating the principal angles of a
single point cutting tool.
- The signature is the sequence of numbers listing the
various angles, in degrees, and the size of the nose
radius.
- There are several systems available like American
standard system (ASA), Orthogonal rake system (ORS),
Normal rake system (NRS), and Maximum rake system
(MRS).
The system most commonly used is American Standard
Association (ASA), which is:
Bake rake angle, Side rake angle, End relief angle, Side
relief angle, End cutting Edge angle, Side cutting Edge
angle and Nose radius.
For example a tool may designated in the following
sequence:
8 14 - 6 6 6 15 - 1
8: is the Bake rake angle
14: is the Side rake angle
6: is the End relief angle
6: is the Side relief angle
6: is the End cutting Edge angle
15: is the Side cutting Edge angle
1: is the Nose radius is 1 mm
 Types of Chip in Machining

a- Discontinuous chip.
b- Continuous chip
c- Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
d- Serrated chip
 Discontinuous Chip
-Brittle work materials
- Low cutting speeds
- Large feed and depth of
cut
- High tool-chip friction
 Continuous Chip
- Ductile work materials
- High cutting speeds
- Small feeds and depths
- Sharp cutting edge
- Low tool-chip friction
Continuous with BUE
- Ductile materials
- Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
- Tool-chip friction
causes portions of
chip to adhere to rake
face
- BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically
 Serrated Chip
- Semicontinuous saw-
tooth appearance
- Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
- Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds
 Tool Wear
Three main forms of wear in metal cutting:
1) Adhesive wear : the tool and the chip weld
together at local asperities, and wear occurs by
the fracture of the welded junctions.
2) Abrasive wear : occurs as a result of hard
particles on the underside of the chip abrading
the tool face by mechanical action as the chip
passes over the rake face.
3) Wear from solid-state diffusion from the tool
materials to the workpiece at high temperature
and intimate contact at the interface between
the chip and the rake face.
Two main types of wear in cutting tool:
1) Flank wear: is the development of a
wear land on the tool due to abrasive
rubbing between the tool flank and the
newly generated surface.
2) Crater wear: is the
formation of a circular crater
in the rake face of the tool, as
a result of diffusion wear due
to high temperature
developed at the interface
between the chip and the rake
face of the tool.
Types of Wear seen in Cutting Tools
 Tool Life
Tool life: is the time a tool will cut satisfactorily
and is expressed as the minutes between
changes of the cutting tool.
Taylors Tool Life Formula:
Vc (T of power n) = C
Where: T: the machining time in min.
Vc : the cutting speed.
C: is a constant = Vc at T = 1 min.
n : is an exponent that depends on the
cutting parameters
 Typical Values of n and C
in Taylor Tool Life Equation

Tool material n C (m/min)

High speed steel:

Non-steel work 0.125 120
Steel work 0.125 70
Cemented carbide:
Non-steel work 0.25 900
Steel work 0.25 500
Ceramic:
Steel work 0.6 3000
The basic machining parameters in turning

1- Cutting speed (V):

V = Dm N/ 1000 m/min
Where:
Dm = mean diameter of the WP (mm)
= (D + d)/2
N = rotational speed of the WP (rpm)
2. Rotational speed (N):
N = 1000 V/ Dm rpm
Oblique cutting Orthogonal cutting
3. Feed rate (f):
which is the movement of the tool cutting edge
in millimeters per revolution of the WP
(mm/rev).
4. Depth of cut (t):
which is measured in a direction perpendicular
to the WP axis, for one turning pass.
t = (D d )/ 2 mm
- where d is the diameter of the machined
surface.
 Machining Time (Tm)
The number of passes, np is mathematically
determined from:
- np =(D d)/2tO ,
where, tO = depth of cut in one pass, mm.
- Tm = LC np /N*f
- LC = L + A + O = actual length of cut
A, O = approach and over run
- L = WP length
 METAL REMOVAL RATE IN TURNING

The volume of metal removed during a lathe

cutting operation can be calculated as follows:
MRR = V f t cu. mm/min
Where:
MRR = volume of metal removed, cu. mm/min
V = cutting speed, m/min
f = feed, mm/rev
t = depth of cut, in mm
 Machine Power Requirements

The following formula is for approximating

machine power requirements for making a
particular cut:
hp = (t*f*V)C
= MRR*C
Where:
C: power constant for the particular material
swiveling the compound rest to the required angle .
 Off-Set Tail Stock

- In this method the normal rotating part of the

lathe still drives the workpiece (mounted
between centers), but the center at the tailstock
is offset towards/away from the cutting tool.
-Then, as the cutting tool passes over, the part is
cut in a conical shape.
- The method for determining the offset distance
is described below.
OFFSET = (OL/ TL) (D d)/2
Where:
OL = overall length
TL = taper length
D = the large taper diameter
d = the small taper diameter
OFFSET = the distance to move the
tailstock from the zero setting
Off-Set Tail Stock
 Example (1)

How much machining time will be required to

reduce the diameter of a cast iron rod from
120 mm to 116 mm over a length of 100 mm
by turning. The cutting speed is taken as 100
m/min and the feed is 0.2 mm/rev.
 Example (2)
Determine the angle at which the compound rest
would be swiveled for cutting a taper on a work
piece having a length of 150 mm and outside
diameter 80 mm. The smallest diameter on the
tapered end of the rod should be 50 mm and
the required length of the tapered portion is 80
mm. Calculate the tailstock off-set (if it used
instead of the compound rest).
Solution
Given data: D = 80 mm, d= 50 mm, L= 80mm
The compound rest should be swiveled at 10.62
 Example (3)
Find the machining time to finish the job as
shown in the figure from 45 mm initial diameter
and 95 mm long row material, assuming that:
- For turning : V = 30 m / min, f = 0.35 mm / rev
- For drilling: V = 30 m / min, f = 0.1 mm / rev
- For threading: V = 10 m / min
- For chamfering: f = 0.25 mm / rev
- Depth of cut = 1.25 mm
 Solution
1- Tm for facing:
N = 1000V/ Dm = 1000x 30 / 3.14x 0.5 (45 + 0)
= 425 rpm
L = 0.5 D + 3 = 0.5x 45 + 3 = 25.5 mm
Tm = L / f N = 25.5 / 0.35 x 425 = 0.17 min
2- Tm for turning from 45 mm to 40 mm:
N = 1000 x 30 / 3.14 x 0.5 ( 45 + 40) = 225 rpm
np = (D d) / 2 to = (45 40) / 2 x 1.25 = 2 passes
L = 95 + 5 = 100 mm
Tm = L np / f N = 100x 2 / 0.35 x 225 = 2.54 min
3- Tm for turning from 40 mm to 30 for a length of
70 mm:
N = 1000 x 30 / 3.14 x 0.5 (40 + 30) = 273 rpm
np = (40 30) / 2 x 1.25 = 4 passes
L = 70 + 5 = 75 mm
Tm = L np / f N = 75 x 4 / 0.35x 273 = 3.14 min
4- Tm for turning from 30 mm to 25 for a length of
35 mm:
N = 1000 x 30 / 3.14 x 0.5 (30 + 25) = 374 rpm
np = (30 25) / 2 x 1.25 = 2 passes
L = 35 + 5 = 40 mm
Tm = L np / f N = 40 x 2 / 0.35x 374 = 0.61 min
5- Tm for threading for a length of 35 mm, D = 25
mm, pitch of 3 mm:
N = 1000 x 10 / 3.14 x 25 = 128 rpm
np = D / threads per cm = 25 / (1 / pitch)
= 25 / (1 /3) = 7.5 8 passes
L = 35 + 5 =40 mm
f = pitch = 3 mm / rev
Tm = L np / f N = 40x 8 / 3 x 128 = 0.833 min
6-Tm for chamfering 45 deg, 3.5mm at D = 25 mm:
N = 1000 x 30 / 3.14 x 25 = 382 rpm
L = 3.5 + 5 = 8.5 mm
Tm = L np / f N = 8.5 x 1 / 0.25x 382 = 0.09 min
7- Tm for drilling a hole of 35 mm depth and D = 6 mm:
N = 1000x30 / 3.14 x 6 = 1592 rpm
L = 35 + 0.4 D = 37.4 mm
Tm = L / f N = 37.4 / 0.1 x 1592 = 0.235 min
8- Tm for parting off:
Tm = L / f N = 25.5 / 0.35 x 425 = 0.17 min
9- Total machining time:
Tt = T1 + T2 + + T7
= 1.17 +2.54 + 3.14 + 0.61 + 0.833 + 0.09 + 0.235
+ 0.17 = 8.788 min
 Selecting and Planning the Process of
Manufacture
- The manufacturing process selected must be an
economical balance of materials, manpower,
product design, tooling and equipment, plant
space, and many other factors influencing cost and
practicality.
- The process must be selected in such a way that the
produced product will be acceptable to the
consumer functionally, economically and
appearance-wise.
Process planning: is a complex activity that affects
overall productivity in the production of a
part/product.
- Here we shall look at some aspects of it related to
machining of single parts
- IMPORTANT: please note that process plan must
be made for all manufacturing processes, including
product assembly.
- However, we will restrict our study to examples on
process planning for machining.
- We must determine whether all operations can
be done on the same machine, or we will need
multiple machines.
-If there are very tight precision requirements on
some portions, we may have to perform
finishing operations on additional machines.
Operations planning: for each operation, we
must select the appropriate tool (tool selection),
and set up the tool path, cutting speed, feed
etc.
- Note that the decisions of removal volume
determination, operation selection, fixture
planning, setup planning, and sequencing are
sometimes inter-dependent how you plan in
one stage will affect the choices you have in
the other stages.
- The process plan specifies all of these details
(operations; tools, path plan and operation
conditions; setups; sequences; possible
machine routings; and fixtures).
- Usually, the operations plan is documented as
a table.
 Fundamental Rules for the selection and
Planning of a Manufacturing Process
1. The process must assure a product that meets all
design requirements of quality, function and reliability.
2. Daily production requirement must be met.
3. Full capacity of the machine and its tooling should be
utilized.
4. Idle operator and idle machine time must be reduced
to minimum.
5. The process must provide the maximum utilization of
the minimum amount of material.
6. The process should be flexible enough to
accommodate reasonable changes in design.
7. The process should be designed to eliminate
any unnecessary operations and combine as many
operations as are physically and economically
practical.
8. Capital expenditure that must be amortized over
short periods must be kept as low as possible.
9. The process must be designed with the
protection of both the operator and the workpiece
in mind.
10. The process should be developed so that the
final product will be produced at a minimum cost
to the enterprise as a whole.
 PROCESS PLANNING STEPS
- Study the overall shape of the part.
-Use this information to classify the part and determine
the type of workstation needed.
- Thoroughly study the drawing.
-Try to identify every manufacturing features and notes.
- If raw stock is not given, determine the best raw
material shape to use.
- Identify datum surfaces.
- Use information on datum surfaces to determine the
setups.
- Select machines for each setup.
- For each setup determine the rough sequence of
operations necessary to create all the features.
- Sequence the operations determined in the
previous step.
- Select tools for each operation.
- Try to use the same tool for several operations if it
is possible.
- Keep in mind the trade off on tool change time and
estimated machining time.
- Select or design fixtures for each setup.
- Evaluate the plan generate thus far and make
necessary modifications.
- Select cutting parameters for each operation.
- Prepare the final process plan document.
No. Operation Setup WP Tool Tm (min)
description holder
1 Facing 3 jaws Facing tool 0.17
chuck

2 turning from 3 jaws straight shank 2.54

45 mm to 40 chuck turning tool
mm
3 turning from 3 jaws straight shank 3.14
40 mm to 30 chuck turning tool
for a length
of 70 mm

4 turning from 3 jaws straight shank 0.61

30 mm to 25 chuck turning tool
for a length
of 35 mm
No. Operation Setup WP Tool Tm (min)
description holder
5 threading for 3 jaws External 0.833
a length of chuck threading tool
35 mm, D =
25 mm, pitch
of 3 mm
6 chamfering 3 jaws Chamfering 0.09
45 deg, chuck tool
3.5mm at D
= 25 mm

7 drilling a 3 jaws twist drill 0.235

hole of 35 chuck
mm depth
and D = 6
mm
8 Parting off 3 jaws parting- 0.17
chuck off tool