Chapter 9.

Weather and Climate

Climate
 What Causes Climate?
 Climate is the name for the general conditions
of temperature and precipitation for an area
over a long period of time. The climate of a
region is determined by two basic factors:
temperature and precipitation.
Factors that Affect Temperature
 Latitude, elevation and the presence of ocean
currents are three natural factors that affect the
temperature at a particular location.
 Latitude
 Latitude is the measure of the distance north
and south of the equator. Latitude is measured
in degrees. Areas close to the equator, or 0
degrees latitude, receive the direct rays of the
sun. These direct rays provide the most
radiant energy. Areas near the equator have a
warm climate. Polar regions have a cold
climate.
 Elevation
 Elevation, or altitude, is the distance above sea
level. As elevation increases, the air becomes
less dense. This means there are fewer gas
molecules in the air and they are spread far
apart. Less- dense air cannot hold as much
heat as denser air. So as elevation increases,
temperature decreases.
 Location
 The surface temperature of water affects the
temperature of the water above it. Warm
water warms the air and cold water tends to
cool it. Land areas near warm water currents
have warm temperatures. The Gulf Stream is
an ocean current that carries warm water along
the eastern coast of the United States. The
California Current travels toward the equator
carrying cold water along the west coast of the
United States.
Factors that Affect Precipitation
 The two factors that affect the amount of
precipitation at a particular location are
prevailing winds and mountain ranges.
 Prevailing Winds
 A wind that blows more often from one
direction that from any other direction is called
a prevailing wind. Prevailing winds have a
great influence on the climate of regions in
their path. Different prevailing winds carry
different amounts of moisture. The amount of
moisture carried by a prevailing wind affects
the amount of precipitation a region receives.
Winds formed by rising warm air tend to bring
precipitation.
 Direction of Prevailing Winds
 The direction from which a prevailing wind
blows also affects the amount of moisture it
carries. Some prevailing winds blow from the
water to the land (sea breeze).
 Desert
 A region that receives less than 25 centimeters
of rainfall a year is called a desert. The
combined effect of a prevailing wind’s
moisture content and its direction can make it
possible for a desert to exist near a large body
of water. The Sahara Desert is bordered on the
west by the Atlantic Ocean. The prevailing
winds that blow across the Sahara originate far
inland, carry little moisture and are caused by
sinking cold air.
 Mountain Ranges
 The amount of precipitation at a particular
location is also affected by mountain ranges.
A mountain range acts as a barrier to
prevailing winds. The windward side of a
mountain has a wet climate. On the leeward
side, relatively dry air moves down the side of
the mountain and results in very little
precipitation. A good example is the Great
Basin on the leeward side of the Sierra Nevada
Mountain Range.
 Climate Zones
 The Earth’s climate can be divided into
general climate zones according to average
temperatures. Scientist classify localized
climates as microclimates. The three major
climate zones on the Earth are the polar,
temperate, and tropical zones.
 Polar Zones
 In each hemisphere, the polar zone extends
from the pole to about 60 degrees latitude. In
polar zones, the average yearly temperature is
below freezing. There are some areas in the
polar zones, such as the northern coasts of
Canada and Alaska and the southern tip of
South America, where the snow melts during
the warmest part of the year.
 Temperate Zones
 In each hemisphere, the temperate zone is
found between 60 degrees and 30 degrees
latitude. IN the areas of the temperate zones
farther from the equator, snow is common in
the winter. In the areas of the temperate zones
closer to the equator, rain normally falls all
year round. The average amount of
precipitation is about the same throughout.
The average temperatures range from 5
degrees C to 20 degrees C. T
 Deserts in the Temperate Zone
 Deserts in the temperate zones are usually
located in land, far away from the oceans. The
winds that blow across these inland deserts
carry little moisture. Although very hot during
the day, temperatures at night can drop to
below freezing. Inland deserts are found in
Australia (the Great Sandy Desert) and Central
Asia ( the Gobi Desert).
 Tropical Zones
 The tropical zones, which extend from 30
degrees north and south latitude to the equator,
have high temperatures and high humidity.
Tropical zones are also known as low-latitude
climates. The average temperature during the
coldest month of the year does not fall below
18 degrees C. Many deserts are located on the
western coasts of the continents. This is
because the prevailing winds, the trades, blow
from east to west.
Marine and Continental Climates
 Within each of the three major climate zones,
there are marine and continental climates.
Areas near an ocean or other large body of
water have a marine climate. Areas located
within a large landmass have a continental
climate. Areas with a marine climate receive
more precipitation and have a more moderate
climate. A continental climate has less
precipitation and a greater range in climate.
 Changes in Climate
 The three natural factors responsible for
climate changes are the slow drifting of the
continents, changes in the sun’s energy output
and variations in the position of the Earth
relative to the sun. These natural factors are
not related to human activity. The results of
the human activity of the burning of fossil
fuels may also lead to changes in climate.
 Ice Ages
 Periods when much of the Earth’s surface has
been covered with enormous sheets of ice are
called ice ages or major glaciations. Scientists
have found evidence of four major ice ages
during the last 2 million years each lasting
about 100,000 years. The average temperature
was 10 to 15 degrees C. The causes are not
known but they are probably associated with
variations in the tilt of the Earth’s axis and the
shape of the Earth’s orbit around the sun.
 Interglacials
 Interglacials are the time periods between
major glaciations. Interglacials are warm
periods. During an interglacial, the average
temperature was about 4 to 6 degrees higher
than the average temperature during a major
glaciation. A cold period called the Little Ice
Age lasted from 1500 to 1900.
 Drifting Continents
 About 230 million years ago, all the Earth’s
landmasses were joined in one super continent,
Pangaea. The slow drifting apart of the
continents caused dramatic changes. As the
continents moved toward their present-day
locations, the sea level dropped, volcanoes
erupted, and much of the Earth’s surface was
pushed upward. The combined effect was a
drop in temperature and precipitation all over
the Earth. These changes were gradual.
 Extinction of the Dinosaurs
 The climate change caused by the drifting of
the continents may have resulted in the
extinction of the dinosaur. Many types of
plants also became extinct. Dinosaurs that
depended on these plants died. Meat-eating
dinosaurs that depended on plant-eating
dinosaurs died. Other scientists believe that
dinosaurs became extinct as the result of a
giant asteroid striking the Earth 65 million
years ago.
 Variations in Radiant Energy
 Many scientists have tried to relate changes in
the Earth’s climate to changes in the sun’s
energy output. During periods of high energy
output, the Earth’s temperature would rise.
The temperature would drop during periods of
low energy output. No evidence has been
found to support this theory.
 Global Warming
 IN the mid-nineteenth century industrialization
led to the increased burning of fossil fuels,
including coal, oil and natural gas. Then these
fuels are burned they release carbon dioxide
that traps heat. As a result, the atmosphere
becomes warmer. Meteorologists found that
temperatures in the 1990’s were the highest in
more than 100 years.
 Short Term Changes in Climate
 Some short-term changes may be the result of
changes in ocean currents and global winds.
Ocean currents help transfer heat to the
atmosphere. This process generates global
winds. The global winds help move ocean
currents. Any major change in an ocean
current can cause a change in climate. El Nino
is an example.
 El Nino
 A cold current that flows from west to east
across the southern part of the Pacific Ocean
turns toward the equator along the coast of
South America and flows north along the coast
of Chile and Peru. It is known as the Peru
Current. Occasionally the Peru Current is
covered by a thin sheet of warm water. Every
2 to 10 years, strong winds spread the warm
water over a large area resulting in droughts in
some areas and flooding in others.
What changes climate?
 Changes in:
 Sun’s output

 Earth’s orbit

 Drifting continents

 Volcanic eruptions

 Greenhouse gases
Increasing greenhouse gases trap more heat
Greenhouse gases

Nitrous oxide
Carbon dioxide

Water Sulfur hexafluoride Methane

Effects on ecosystems Increased warmth has
also affected living
things. For example, the
Japanese keep very
detailed records on the
blossoming of their
Tokyo cherry trees, so
they know they are
blooming 5 days earlier
on average than they
were 50 years ago.
 
Also mosquitoes, birds,
and insects are moving
north in the Northern
Hemisphere.
  Scientists learn about
How do we know? the past climate
conditions from such
things as tree ring
analysis, fossil evidence,
and analysis of patterns
and chemical
composition in coral
skeletons and ice cores.
Present day observations
 We know about the present changes
from observations taken at the surface
and in the atmosphere.

 One of the questions often asked is if

the warming isn’t an artifact of urban
heat islands or changes in how
measurements are done. Scientists
have looked at this extensively. For
example, when a NASA group
removed all but 200 true rural sites,
the warming pattern persisted. a U.S.
National Climatic Data Center study
found no statistically significant
urban heat island effect in 289 U.S.
stations. And finally, even though
there are no cities in the oceans,
warming has been measured over
them too.
Why should we care?
 Global average temperatures
are expected to increase by
about 2-13°F (1-7°C) by the
end of the century. That
may not sound like a lot, so
what’s the big deal? The
problem is that small
changes in global average
temperature can lead to
really large changes in the
environment. Let’s look at
some of the expected
changes.
 There will always be natural
variability, and some places and
some years will be warmer or
cooler than average. In general,
however, summers will get hotter,
not only because of higher
temperatures but also because
humidities will increase. That
means that heat waves, like the
one that killed 35,000 people in
Europe in 2003, will become
more common.

 On the plus side, winters will be

warmer in many places, reducing
heating bills. And the number of
days with frosts is likely to
decrease.
 Sea-level rise
projections : a few
inches to a few feet
• 2 ft: U.S. would lose
10,000 square miles
• 3 ft: Would inundate
Miami
• Affects erosion, loss of
wetlands, freshwater
supplies
• Half of the world’s
population lives along
coasts
• Big question: Ice sheets
A warming planet means continuing changes in its ecosystems. As the oceans absorb more
carbon dioxide, the chemistry of the ocean changes, putting many sea creatures at risk. The
IPCC projects that by 2100 the pH of the ocean will drop to its lowest point in at least 20
million years.

As temperatures get milder, mosquitoes, ticks, rodents, and other disease carriers will
expand their range, particularly in developing countries. Here in the U.S., dengue
hemorrhagic fever, a tropical, mosquito-borne disease, hit for the first time in modern times
in 2005 in the Lower Rio Grande Valley.
What next—what can we do?
Produce more fuel-efficient vehicles
Reduce vehicle use
Improve energy-efficiency in buildings
Develop carbon capture and storage processes
Triple nuclear power
Increase solar power
Decrease deforestation/plant forests
Improve soil carbon management strategies
Individual actions
 Use mass transit, bike,  Buy water-saving
walk, roller skate appliances and toilets;
 Tune up your furnace installing low-flow
shower heads.
 Unplug appliances or
plug into a power strip  Caulk, weatherstrip,
and switch it off insulate, and replace
old windows
 Buy products with a
U.S. EPA Energy Star
label