INTRODUCTION TO

STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS IS THE PREDICTION OF THE
PERFORMANCES OF A GIVEN SRUCTURE UNDER PRESCRIBED
LOADS AND/OR OTHER EXTERNAL EFFECTS,SUCH AS
SUPPORT MOVEMENTS AND TEMPERATURE CHANGES.
The performance characteristics commonly
of interest in the design of structures are
(1) stresses or stress resultants, such as axial forces,
shear forces, and bending moments;
(2) deflections; and
(3) support reactions.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
• EARLIER ENGINEERING
STRUCTURES WERE
DESIGNED BY TRIAL AND
ERROR AND USING THE
RULE OF THUMB BASED
ON THE PAST
EXPERIENCES.
• GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642) IS GENERALLY CONSIDERED TO BE THE
ORIGINATOR OF THE THEORY OF STRUCTURES.
• ROBERT HOOKE (1635 -1703)- DEVELOPED THE LAW OF LINEAR
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE FORCE AND THE DEFORMATION OF
MATERIALS.
• Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) who formulated the law of motion and
developed calculus
• John Bernoulli (1667– 1748), who formulated the principle of virtual
work;
• Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), who developed the theory of buckling of
columns
• C. A. de Coulomb (1736–1806), who presented the analysis of bending
of elastic beams.
• In 1826 L. M. Navier (1785–1836) published a treatise on elastic behavior of
structures, which is considered to be the first textbook on the modern theory of
strength of materials.
• B. P. Clapeyron (1799–1864), who formulated the three-moment equation for the
analysis of continuous beams.
• J. C. Maxwell (1831–1879), who presented the method of consistent deformations
and the law of reciprocal deflections.
• Otto Mohr (1835–1918), who developed the conjugate-beam method for calculation
of deflections and Mohr’s circles of stress and strain.
• Alberto Castigliano (1847–1884), who formulated the theorem of least work.
• C. E. Greene (1842–1903), who developed the moment-area method.
• H. Mu ¨ller-Breslau (1851–1925), who presented a principle for constructing influence
lines.
• G. A. Maney (1888– 1947), who developed the slope-deflection method, which is
considered to be the precursor of the matrix sti¤ness method;
Analysis and Design process
• Structural engineering is
the science and art of
planning, designing, and
constructing safe and
economical structures that
will serve their intended
purposes.
Classification of structures
• A structure refers to a system of connected parts
used to support a load. Important examples related to
civil engineering include buildings,bridges, and
towers;
• It is important for a structural engineer to recognize
the various types of elements composing a structure
and to be able to classify structures as to their form
and function.
 Structural Elements
• Tie Rods : Structural members subjected
to a tensile force are often referred to as
tie rods or bracing struts. Due to the
nature of this load, these members are
rather slender, and are often chosen from
rods,bars, angles,or channels
• Beams : Beams are usually straight
horizontal members used primarily to
carry vertical loads.Quite often they are
classified according to the way they are
supported
• Columns. Members that are generally
vertical and resist axial compressive
loads are referred to as columns.
 Types of Structures
• Trusses: When the
span of a structure is
required to be large and
its depth is not an
important criterion for
design, a truss may be
selected. Trusses
consist of slender
elements,usually
arranged in triangular
fashion.
 Types of Structures
• Cables and Arches. Two
other forms of structures
used to span long distances
are the cable and the arch.
• Cables are usually flexible
and carry their loads in
tension. They are
commonly used to support
bridges.
• The arch achieves its
strength in compression,
since it has a reverse
curvature to that of the
cable.
 Types of Structures
• Frames. Frames are often used in
buildings and are composed of beams
and columns that are either pin or
fixed connected
• Surface Structures. A surface
structure is made from a material
having a very small thickness
compared to its other dimensions.
Sometimes this material is very
flexible and can take the form of a tent
or air-inflated structure. In both cases
the material acts as a membrane that
is subjected to pure tension.
LOADS
• Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed
positions that act permanently on the structure. Such loads consist
of the weights of the structural system itself and of all other material
and equipment permanently attached to the structural system.
• Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused
by the use of the structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to
refer to all loads on the structure that are not dead loads
• IMPACT: When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they
cause larger stresses than those that would be produced if the same
loads would have been applied gradually. The dynamic effect of the
load that causes this increase in stress in the structure is referred to
as impact.
 LOADS
• Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The
magnitudes of wind loads that may act on a structure depend on the
geographical location of the structure, obstructions in its surrounding
terrain, such as nearby buildings, and the geometry and the vibrational
characteristics of the structure itself.
• SNOW LOAD. In some country,roof loading due to snow can be quite severe,
and therefore protection against possible failure is of primary concern.
Design loadings typically depend on the building’s general shape and roof
geometry, wind exposure, location, its importance, and whether or not it is
heated
 LOADS
• An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface.
Although the ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions
during an earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component of ground
motion is usually small and does not have a significant effect on most
structures. It is the horizontal component of ground motion that causes
structural damage and that must be considered in designs of structures
located in earthquake-prone areas
• Hydrostatic and Soil pressure: When structures are used to retain water,
soil, or granular materials, the pressure developed by these loadings
becomes an important criterion for their design. Examples of such types of
structures include tanks, dams, ships, bulkheads, and retaining walls. Here
the laws of hydrostatics and soil mechanics are applied to define the
intensity of the loadings on the structure
ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY
DETERMINATE
STRUCTURE
Equilibrium and support
reaction
Equilibrium Structure
• A structure is considered to be in equilibrium if, initially at rest, it
remains at rest when subjected to a system of forces and couples
Concurrent Force Systems
When a structure is in equilibrium under the action of a
concurrent force system—that is, the lines of action of all the
forces intersect at a single point—the moment equilibrium
equations are automatically satisfied, and only the force
equilibrium equations need to be considered

Two-Force and Three-Force Structures

we will encounter several structures and structural members that will be in equilibrium
under the action of only two, or three, forces. The analysis of such structures and of
structures composed of such members can be considerably expedited by recalling from
statics the following characteristics of such systems:
1. If a structure is in equilibrium under the action of only two forces, the forces must be
equal, opposite, and collinear.
2. If a structure is in equilibrium under the action of only three forces, the forces must
be either concurrent or parallel.
External and internal Forces
• External forces are the actions of other bodies on the structure
under consideration. For the purposes of analysis, it is usually
convenient to further classify these forces as applied forces
and reaction forces.
• Internal forces are the forces and couples exerted on a
member or portion of the structure by the rest of the structure.
TYPES OF SUPPORT
• Supports are used to attach structures to the ground
or other bodies, thereby restricting their movements
under the action of applied loads.
Stability and Determinacy
of structures
DETERMINACY
• The equilibrium equations provide both the necessary and sufficient
conditions for equilibrium. When all the forces in a structure can be
determined strictly from these equations, the structure is referred to as
statically determinate
 STABILITY
• To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its
members, it is not only necessary to satisfy the
equations of equilibrium, but the members must
also be properly held or constrained by their
supports.
• In some cases a structure or one of its members
may have fewer reactive forces than equations of
equilibrium that must be satisfied. The structure
then becomes only partially constrained.
• In some cases there may be as many unknown
forces as there are equations of equilibrium;
however, instability or movement of a structure
or its members can develop because of improper
constraining by the supports. This can occur if all
the support reactions are concurrent at a point
Computation of Reaction
1. Draw a free-body diagram (FBD) of the structure.
2. Check for static determinacy.
3. Determine the unknown reactions by applying the
equations of equilibrium and condition (if any) to the
entire structure.
4. Apply an alternative equilibrium equation that has not
been used before to the entire structure to check the
computations.
Determine the support reaction.
Determine the support reaction.
Determine the support reaction.
Determine the support reaction.
The side of the building is subjected to a wind loading that creates a uniform
normal pressure of 15 kPa on the windward side and a suction pressure of 5
kPa on the leeward side. Determine the horizontal and vertical components
of reaction at the pin connections A, B,and C of the supporting gable arch.
Determine the support reactions
 ANALYSIS OF STATICALLY
DETERMINATE TRUSSES
• A truss is a structure composed of
slender members joined together at
their end points. The members
commonly used in construction consist
of wooden struts, metal bars, angles, or
channels.
• Because of their light weight and high
strength, trusses are widely used, and
their applications range from supporting
bridges and roofs of building
ROOF TRUST
BRIDGE TRUSS
Simple truss
The simplest framework that is rigid or stable is a triangle. Consequently, a simple truss is
constructed by starting with a basic triangular element, such as ABC
COMPOUND TRUSS
• A compound truss is
formed by connecting
two or more simple
trusses together. Quite
often this type of truss is
used to support loads
acting over a large span
Complex Truss
• A truss geometry that does not fall in either the
simple or compound category is called a complex
truss
Assumptions for Design.
The analysis of trusses is based on the following idealizations that ensure
that the forces in the members are purely axial:
1. The loads and displacement restraints are applied only at the nodes.
2. The members are connected with frictionless pins so that the members
can rotate freely and no moment exists at the ends.
3. The stress due to the weight of the members is small in comparison to
the stress due to the applied loads.
4. Each member is straight and is arranged such that its centroidal axis
coincides with the line connecting the nodal points.
FBD of Truss member and its
associated nodes
DETERMINACY
STABILITY
• If b + r < 2j , a truss will be unstable, that is, it will collapse,
since there will be an insufficient number of bars or reactions
to constrain all the joints. Also, a truss can be unstable if it is
statically determinate or statically indeterminate. In this case
the stability will have to be determined either by inspection or
by a force analysis.
• External stability
• Internal stability
External stability
• a structure (or truss) is externally unstable if all of its reactions are
concurrent or parallel.
Internal stability
• The internal stability of a truss can often be checked by careful inspection
of the arrangement of its members. If it can be determined that each joint
is held fixed so that it cannot move in a “rigid body”sense with respect to
the other joints,then the truss will be stable.
Analysis of plane trusses by
METHOD OF JOINTS
 
•• In the method of joints, the axial forces in the
members of a statically determinate truss are
determined by considering the equilibrium of its joints.
Since the entire truss is in equilibrium, each of its
joints must also be in equilibrium. At each joint of the
truss, the member forces and any applied loads and
reactions form a coplanar concurrent force system.
• the method of joints consists of satisfying the
equilibrium conditions and for the forces exerted on
the pin at each joint of the truss.
ZERO FORCE MEMBER
• Because trusses are usually designed to support several different loading
conditions, it is not uncommon to find members with zero forces in them when
a truss is being analyzed for a particular loading condition. Zero-force members
are also added to trusses to brace compression members against buckling and
slender tension members against vibrating.
• Two common types of member arrangements that result in zero-force
members are the following:
• 1. If only two noncollinear members are connected to a joint that has no
external loads or reactions applied to it, then the force in both members is zero.
• 2. If three members, two of which are collinear, are connected to a joint that
has no external loads or reactions applied to it, then the force in the member
that is not collinear is zero.
 Procedure for Analysis
• Check the truss for static determinacy
• Identify by inspection any zero-force members of the truss
• Determine the slopes of the inclined members (except the zero-force
members) of the truss.
• Draw a free-body diagram of the whole truss, showing all external loads and
reactions. Write zeros by the members that have been identified as zero-
force members.
• Examine the free-body diagram of the truss to select a joint that has no
more than two unknown forces (which must not be collinear) acting on it
• Draw a free-body diagram of the selected joint, showing tensile forces by
arrows pulling away from the joint and compressive forces by arrows
pushing into the joint.
• Determine the unknown forces by applying the two equilibrium equations.