A.

LAVANYA
A.P/EEE
Contents:
 Basic definitions
 Laws of illumination
 lighting calculation
 Sources of light
 Photometers
 BASIC DEFINITIONS :
Luminous Flux (F) :
 The total amount of light energy radiated from a source or an
illuminating object in all directions per second is known as
‘luminous flux’.
 It is denoted by the letter F and its unit is ‘lumen’.
 The total quantity of light energy emitted per second from a luminous
body is called luminous flux.
 Luminous Intensity or Illuminating Power (I) :

• Luminous intensity of a point source in any direction is defined as

the luminous flux emitted or radiated by the source per unit solid angle
in that direction.

• If ‘F’ is the luminous flux radiated by a source within a solid

angle ‘’ in any particular direction, then luminous intensity

• I=F/
Lumen
I  or 'Candela'
Steradian

Unit: Candela (cd) or lumens/steredian

ω- solid angle
 Illumination of a Surface
Illumination (or) Intensity of Illumination (E) :
The illumination (or) intensity of illumination at a point on the surface is
defined as the luminous flux (F) received on an unit area (A) of the surface
surrounding the point.

The illumination E of a surface A is defined as the luminous flux per unit area (F/A)
in lumens per square meter which is renamed a lux (lx).

It’s unit is lumen /m2.

Illumination, E
An illumination of one lux occurs when a flux of one
lumen falls on an area of one square meter.

W
R
F
E Unit: lux (lx)
A Area A
Lumen and candle power
Lumen:
 The amount of luminous flux given out in a space represented by one unit
solid angle by a source having an intensity of one candle power in all
directions.
 Lumens = candle power x solid angle
 Total lumens given out by source of one candela are 4π lumens.

Candle power:
 Candle power is the light radiating capacity of a source in a given direction .

 Definition:The number of lumens emitted by a source in a unit solid angle in a given

direction. It is denoted by a symbol C.P.
Solid angle
Co-efficient of Utilization
 A surface to be illuminated receive light either directly from the lamps or
reflected from the ceiling and walls or both.
 In this case, the total flux reaching the surface will never be equal to the
flux emitted by the lamp, due to absorption by reflectors, ceiling and
walls.

Utilization factor = lumens reaching at the working place

Total lumens emitted by the source

 Usually it varies from 0.5 to 0.8.

Depreciation Factor
 The total flux emitted by the source and its fitting may be
reduced due to deposition of dust upon the surfaces.
 Similarly quantity of light reflected from the ceiling and
walls also decreases with the passage of time.
 This is called as depreciation factor.
 Usually it varies from 1.3 to 1.6.

 Lamp Efficiency: It is defined as the visible radiations

emitted by it in lumens per watt.
Laws of illumination
 Inverse square law of illumination :
The intensity of illumination (E) of a surface due to
a light source is directly proportional to the luminous
intensity or illuminating power (I) of the source and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the source and the surface (r2).

E  I
I
E 
(or)
r2
1 KI
E  E 
r2 r2
The Cosine Law of Illuminance

 The law states that Illuminance at a point on a plane is

proportional to the cosine of the angle of light incident (the angle
between the direction of the incident light and the normal to the
plane).
 It is the point source Illuminance equation.
 Where, Iθ is the luminous intensity of the source in the direction of the
illuminated point,
 Ɵ is the angle between the normal to the plane containing the illuminated
point and the line joining the source to the illuminated point, and
 d is the distance to the illuminated point.
The Illuminance or the surface density of the light flux received by an elementary area varies
with the distance from the light source and the angle of the elementary area with respect to
the direction of the light flux. The maximum
Lighting Calculations
Method of lighting calculations
1.Watt per square metre method
2.Lumnen or light flux method
3.Point-to-point or inverse square law method
(1)Watts Per Square Meter Method:
 This is principally a “rule of thumb‟ method very handy for rough
calculations or checking.
 It consists of making an allowance of watts/m2 of area to be
illuminated according to the illumination desired on the assumption of
an average figure of overall efficiency of the system.

(2) Lumen or Light Flux Method:

 This method is applicable to those cases where the sources of light are
such as to produce an approximate uniform illumination over the
working plane or where an average value is required.
 Determines average light levels in large open areas.
 Lumens received on the working plane may be determined from the
relation,
 Lumens received on the working plane = Number of lamps X wattage
of each lamp X lamp efficiency (lumens/watt) X coefficient of
utilization/depreciation factor X maintenance factor.
(3)Point-To-Point or Inverse Square Law Method:
 This method is applicable where the illumination at a point due to one
or more sources of light is required, the candle power of sources in the
particular direction under consideration being known.
 This method is not much used because of its complicated and
cumbersome applications.
 Determines light levels at a specific point on an object or surface.
 When the polar curves of lamp and its reflector giving candle powers
of the lamp in different directions is known, the illumination at any
point within the range of the lamp can be calculated from the inverse
square law.
 If two or more lamps are illuminating the same working plane, the
illumination due to each can be calculated and added.
 Application: flood lighting, yard lighting,etc.
Lumen Method Calculations
 1 foot candle (FC) = 1 Lumen (Lms) divided by 1 square foot
(area / A)
 1 FC = 1 LM ÷ A
 Illuminance (E) (amount of light falling onto an object measured
in foot candles) = Lumens divided by Area (in sq. ft.)
 E = Lms ÷ A (sq. ft.)
Lumen Method Example 1
Solving for Illuminance(E) Level
 Room 10’ x 15’
 5 down lights
 1000 Lumens each down light

 E = Lms ÷ A
 Illuminance = Lumens divided by Area
 A = 10’ x 15’ = 150 sq. ft.
 1000 Lumens x 5 down lights = 5000 lumens
 E = 5000 Lms ÷ 150 sq. ft.
 E = 37.5 Lms per sq. ft.
 E = 37.% foot candles (FC)
Lumen Method Example 2
Solving for Lumens or Luminaires needed
 Room 10’ x 15’ (A = 150 sq. ft.)
 Illuminance level (E) = 60 foot-candles
 Need Lumens / Luminaires
 E = Lms ÷ A - original equation
 Lumens needed = Illuminance x Area
 Lms = E x A
 Lms = 60 x 150 sq. ft.
 Lms = 9000 Lumens
Lumen Method Example 2
Solving for Lumens or Luminaires needed
 Lumens needed = Illuminance x Area
 Lms = E x A
 Lms = 60 E x 150 sq. ft.
 Lms = 9000 Lumens
 550 lumens per luminaire
 Luminaires needed = Lumens needed divided by Lumens per
luminaire
 Luminaires (X) = 9000 (lumens) ÷ 550 Lumens per Luminaire
 9000 ÷ 550 = 16.36
 Always round up with any point.
 Luminaires needed = 17
Lighting schemes
 The distribution of the light emitted by lamps is usually
controlled to some extent by means of reflectors and translucent
diffusion screens, or even lenses.
 The interior lighting schemes may be classified as
 Direct,
 Semi-direct,
 Semi-indirect,
 Indirect and
 General lighting schemes.
 Lighting schemes
Direct lighting scheme:
 Direct lighting scheme is the most commonly used lighting
scheme.
 In this lighting scheme more than 90% of total light flux is
made to fall directly on the working plane with the help of
deep reflectors.
 Direct lighting, though most efficient, is liable to cause glare
and hard shadows.
 It is mainly used for industrial and general outdoor lighting
 Semi-direct lighting :
 Semi-direct lighting scheme is best suited to rooms with
high ceilings where a high level of uniformly distributed
illumination is desirable.
 In this lighting scheme, 60 to 90 per cent of the total
luminous flux is made to fall downwards directly with the
help of semi-direct reflectors, remaining light is used to
illuminate the ceiling and walls
 Semi-indirect lighting :
 Semi-indirect lighting scheme is mainly used for indoor light
decoration purposes.
 In this lighting scheme 60 to 90 per cent of total luminous
flux thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection and
the rest reaches the working plane directly except for some
absorption by the bowls
 Indirect lighting :
 Indirect lighting scheme is mainly used drawing offices ,
composing rooms , in workshops where large machines and
other obstructions would cause troublesome shadows if direct
lighting is used.
 In this lighting scheme more than 90% of total luminous flux is
thrown upwards to the ceiling for diffuse reflection by using
inverted or bowl reflectors.
 In such a system the ceiling acts as the light source, and the glare
is reduced to minimum.
 General diffusion Lighting:
 General Lighting Scheme makes use of lamps made of diffusing
glass and gives nearly equal illumination in all directions
  PHOTOMETRY
 Introduction :

The light emitted or reflected by the objects can

be measured in comparison with a standard
source.

The branch of optics which deals with the

measurement of light is known as ‘Photometry’.
(‘Photo’ means light and ‘metry’ means
measurement).
 An experiment setup to compare illuminance of
two sources on a screen
 1 I
K  E 
4 4r 2

Principle of Photometry :
The principle of photometry is based on the
adjustment of the distances of the two light sources
from the measuring point they produce equal
intensity of illumination at the point.
 E1 and E2 be the intensity of illumination due to
two sources S1 and S2 at a surface ‘S’, r1 and r2
be the distances of the two sources from the
surface. The inverse square law of illumination,
I1 I2
E1  2
and E2  2
r1 r2

Where I1 and I 2 are the luminous intensities of the

two sources. By adjusting r1 and r2 , E1 and E2
are made equal.
i.e., E1 = E2
 2
I1 I 2 (or)E I r
 E 2 2=  2 
=
1 1
2
r1 r22 I 2 r 2

The luminous intensity of one source is known, by

comparison, the luminous intensity of another source
can be determined.

Photometer :
It is an instrument which is used to compare the
luminous intensities of two sources. If the luminous
intensity of one of the source is known, the luminous
intensity of the other one can be measured.
 LUMMER – BRODHUN PHOTOMETER :
This is one of the most accurate photometers used for comparing the
luminous intensities of two sources.

LUMMER – BRODHUN PHOTOMETER

LUMMER – BRODHUN PHOTOMETER
Screen ‘S’ : This is a specially prepared
screen made of some white diffusing material of
high reflecting power such as plaster of paris or
magnesium carbonate.
The light rays from the two sources are incident
on the two sides of this screen.
Totally reflecting prism P1 and P2 :

P1 and P2 are two isosceles right angled prisms

whose angles are 45o, 90o and 45 o.

The light rays scattered from the screen ‘S’, fall

normally on one face of the prism, enter into the
prisms without any change in their direction,
undergo total internal reflection and emerge
normally from the other face of these prisms.
Lummer Brodhun Cube A and B :
It consists of two right-angled isosceles prisms A
and B in contact with each other.

The edges of prism A are cut in such a way that it is

slightly curved at the outer edge while flat in the
central part.

The prisms are cemented together at the central

part with Canada Balsam, whose refractive index is
the same as that of the material of the prisms.
 The two prisms are in optical contact with each
other at the central part and enclose an air film
between them at other parts.

Telescope T :

The telescope (T) is used to receive the light

coming from Lummer – Brodhun cube. The whole
apparatus is enclosed in a metallic box blackened
from inside.
 Working :
S1 and S2 are two sources whose luminous
intensities are to be compared.
These sources can be moved along an optical
bench.
They are placed on the opposite side of the screen
‘S’ at equal distances and illuminate the screen
normally.
The light rays reflected diffusively from each side
of screen are incident on the prisms P1 and P2.
These light rays undergo total internal reflection
from the prisms and fall on Lummer Brodhun cube.
Contd.
 The outer rays from the source S1 undergo total
internal reflection at prism ‘A’, while the middle ray
passes into the prism ‘B’ through the point of contact
of the prisms A and B without any deviation.

 The outer rays from S2 undergo total internal

reflection at ‘B’, while the middle ray passes into the
prism ‘A’ through the point of contact without any
deviation.
Contd.
In this way, middle ray from source S1 and outer
rays from source S2 enter into the telescope.
 Since the luminous intensities of the two sources
are different, the field of view of the eyepiece of the
telescope consists of a central part illuminated by light
from S1 and an outer part illuminated by light from S2
of different brightness.
 Now the distances of S1 and S2 are adjusted in
such a way that the field of view appears equally
bright.
Field of view in a Lummer – Brodhun Photometer
When the two sources are of different intensities
When the sources are having equal intensities.
 Comparison of luminous intensities of two
sources :
When the distances of S1 and S2 are so adjusted
that the illuminations on the two sides of ‘S’ are
equal, the whole field of view appears uniformly bright
and the boundary dividing the two fields disappears.

Let I1 and I 2 be the luminous intensities of S1 and

S2 and r1 and r2 are their respective distances from ‘S’
, then according to inverse square law of illumination,
 I1 = r12
E2 (or) E2 
I2 r22
The luminous intensities of the two sources can be compared.
If ‘I1’ is known, ‘I2’ can be calculated from the relation, (or) Thus the
luminous intensities of the two sources can be compared.

2
 r2 
I2  I1 
 r 

 1 
 This photometer is best suited for the
comparison of luminous intensities of two light
sources producing same colour.

If the sources produce different colour the

readings are unreliable, and flicker photometer is
used.
LUMMER – BRODHUN-CONTRAST HEAD