RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DATA RATE

AND BANDWIDTH
1 0 1 0 1
A

-A
T=1/f1

 Duration of each pulse = 1/2f1

 Thus the data rate = 2f1(bps)

Consider:
s(t) =1/ [ sin(f1t)+1/3sin (2  (3f1t)+1/5 sin(2  (5f1t)+1/7 sin(2  f1t)+….]
Let:
I
 A digital transmission system with 4MHz Bandwidth
 What data rate can be achieved ?
 Let f1= 1MHz
 BW = (5x106) –106= 4 MHz of the signal
Data rate = 2x106 = 2 Mbps is achieved.

II  let BW transmission system is 8MHz

 let f1=2MHz
 BW = (5x2 x 106) – (2x106) = 8 MHz
 Data rate = 2x2 x106 = 4 Mbps

There is a direct relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth: the higher the data rate of a signal, the
greater is its effective bandwidth of.

OR
The greater the bandwidth of a transmission system, the higher is the data rate that can be transmitted
over that system.
 EFFECTIVE NOISE
Noise add, attention distort the Signal.

Impulse noise; less problem to analog data but primary source of error in
digital data communication
 THE FOUR SCENARIOS OF COMMUNICATIONS

 Analog Data, Analog Signals (AM, FM, PM)

Analog Data
Analog Signal
(sound waves)
Telephone

 Digital Data, Analog Signals (ASK, FSK, PSK)

Digital Data (Binary Voltage Pulses) Analog Signal (Modulated on carrier frequency)
Modem

 Analog Data, Digital Signals (PAM, PWM, PCM)

Analog Data
(Voice or Video) Digital Data
CODEC

 Digital Data, Digital Signals (NRZ, Bipolar, Manchester)

Digital Data Digital Signal

Encoder
DIGITAL IS PREFERRED METHOD OF
TRANSMISSION
Reseasons
 Digital Technology:
 Continuing drop in cost and size.
 Analog circuitry has not responded.

 Data Integrity:
 Repeaters rather than amplifiers, so effects of noise are not cumulative.
 Possible to transmit over longer distance keeping integrity of data.

 Capacity Utilization:
 Economical to build transmission links of very high bandwidth.
 A high degree of multiplexing is needed.

 Security and privacy:

 Encryption Techniques

 Integration:
 By treating analog and digital data digitally, voice, video and data can be integrated
 DATA & SIGNALS

Analog Signal Digital Signal

Analog Data Two alternatives: 1. Signal Analog Data is encoded using a

occupies same spectrum as analog CODEC to produce a digital bit
data. 2. Analog data is stream.
modulated to occupy a different
spectrum

Digital Data Two alternatives: 1. Signal

consists of two voltage levels to
Digital Data is encoded using a represent 1s and 0s. 2. Digital data
modem to produce analog signal. is encoded to produce a digital signal
with desired properties.
 ANALOG DATA-DIGITAL SIGNAL

Why Digital Signaling?

 Simplicity of digital circuit

 Ever increasing use of Digital Processing Techniques

 Use of Computers in handling all kinds of data

 Coding to minimize the effect of noise.

SIGNALS WHICH ARE INHERENTLY DIGITAL

 Teletype data

 Computer data

 Pulsed radar
SIGNALS WHICH ARE ANALOG

 Speech

 TV
TRANSMISSION OF ANALOG SIGNALS
AS DIGITAL

Sampling at periodic rate (A/D Conversion)

Quantize using discrete amplitude

Code as Binary data

Transmit as encoded Signal to reduce noise

 INTRODUCTION

The process of transmitting analog data onto digital links can

be regarded as digitization i.e. analog data is converted into
digital (using ADC) and then transmitted. At the receiver side
it is converted back into analog (using DAC).
There are two popular techniques for it.

• PCM (Pulse Code Modulation)

• Delta Modulation
 PULSE CODE MODULATION

It involves following steps:

 Sampling
 Quantization
 Encoding
 SAMPLING
A continuously varying Signal f(t) is sampled periodically at the rate of fc samples
per second (Electrically by gating the signals ON and OFF at desired rate).

The Sampling Process

fc = Sampling rate
= Sampling time
T= 1/fc
= Sampling Interval
fs(t) = Sampled o/p

Sampling Theorem (Shannon Sampling Theorem)

A band limited Signal which has no spectral components above a

frequency (Band limited to BHz ) is uniquely determined by its
values at uniform intervals less then 1/2fm seconds apart.
Sampling the signal does not destroy any information content, provided sampling
rate is fc  2 B ( or T 1/2B).
 NYQUISTE SAMPLING INTERVAL

The minimum sampling rate 2B times /sec is called

Nyquiste sampling rate and 1/2B the Nyquiste Interval.

Example :
Speech transmitted via telephone is generally filtered to B= 3.3. KHz,
The Nyquiste rate = 6.6. KHz

Normally Sampled at 8 KHz

 QUANTIZATION
The analog signal at discrete time intervals is weighted (quantized) or divided
into number of standard levels.

Since these levels are to be converted into binary code so the number of levels
are in the power of 2.

The analog levels are actually approximated (or rounded-off) to the nearest standard
level. For example 6.8 v is approximated as 7v.

This approximation introduces a special kind of noise called quantization noise.

If sampling theorem is followed strictly than it will result in minimum quantization
noise.

Problem: As we increase number of samples, the number of quantization levels will

also increase thus more number of bits will be required to encode a particular sample.
 ENCODING
The quantized level are converted into binary code using some suitable
encoding scheme (to be discussed later).
For a 16 level quantization (24), 4 bits are required.
For example:
Number 7 =0111 for 16 level quantization.
Number 7 =00111 for 32 level quantization.
Number 7 =000111 for 64 level quantization.
 DELTA MODULATION

It is a special form of PCM.

It involves a 1-bit ADC. If its output is 1 then the current sample of

the analog signal is greater than the previous one. If the output is
0 then the current sample is less than the previous one.
 OTHER PULSE MODULATIONS

The previous discussed types were of digital nature,

there are other pulse modulations that are analog in
nature. They are:

•PAM (Pulse Amplitude Modulation)

•PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)

•PPM (Pulse Position Modulation)

 OTHER PULSE MODULATIONS (CONT.)
PAM: The Amplitude of the pulse is varied according to the signal at discrete time intervals.

• PWM: The width of the pulse is varied according to the signal at discrete time intervals.

•
 DIGITAL DATA-ANALOG SIGNAL
INTRODUCTION
This is generally the case with computer communication over phone lines
when we use a MODEM (Modulator-Demodulator) to convert digital data
into analog signals at the transmitter and the reverse at the receiver.

The following are some basic encoding schemes for this purpose:

• ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying)

• FSK (Frequency Shift Keying)

• PSK (Phase Shift Keying)

 AMPLITUDE SHIFT KEYING
Scheme: The two binary levels (1 and 0) are represented by two different amplitudes
of the carrier wave. (a 0 may or may not be represented by a 0 volt signal).

The advantages and is disadvantages are the same as of Amplitude Modulation.

 FREQUENCY SHIFT KEYING

Scheme: The two binary levels (1 and 0) are represented by two different
frequencies of the carrier wave.
 PHASE SHIFT KEYING

Scheme: The two binary levels (1 and 0) are represented by two

different phase shifts of the carrier wave.
 DIGITAL DATA-DIGITAL SIGNAL

Introduction
Some times we are unable to transmit the digital data by just two voltage levels.
Special encoding schemes are employed by considering
• Data Rate

• Noise Immunity

• Synchronization etc.

According to these requirements, certain encoding schemes have been developed,

and are discussed as follows.
 NONRETURN TO ZERO (NRZ)
• Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
Scheme: 0 = High level
1 = Low level

• Nonreturn to Zero-Inverted (NRZ-I)

Scheme: 0 = No transition at beginning of interval.
1 = Transition at beginning of interval.
 BIPOLAR TECHNIQUES

• Bipolar-AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)

Scheme: 0 = No line signal
1 = Positive or negative level, alternating for successive
ones.

• Nonreturn to Zero-Inverted (NRZ-I)

Scheme: 0 = Positive or negative level, alternating for successive
zeros.
1 = No line signal
 MANCHESTER TECHNIQUES
•Manchester
Scheme: 0 = Transition from high to low in middle of interval.
1 = Transition from low to high in middle of interval.

Differential Manchester
Scheme: Always a transition at middle of interval.
0 = Transition at the beginning of interval
1 = No transition at the beginning of interval
• NRZ-L Non Return-to-Zero (Level)
At the start of each bit time, the signal level goes high if the bit is 1, or low if it is 0.
• NRZ-M Non Return-to-Zero (Mark)
At the start of each bit time, the signal level changes if the bit is 1
• NRZ-S Non Return-to-Zero (Space)
At the start of each bit time, the signal level changes if the bit is 0
• Biphase-L
Manchester Biphase (Level) or "Manchester"
The signal level changes in the middle of every bit time, with a rising edge if the bit is 1 or a falling edge if the bit is
0.
• Biphase-M Biphase (Mark)
The signal level changes at the start of every bit time.
The signal level changes in the middle of a bit time if the bit is 1
• Biphase-S Biphase (Space)
The signal level changes at the start of every bit time.
The signal level changes in the middle of a bit time if the bit is 0
• RZ Return-to-Zero
The signal level is normally low.
At the start of each bit time, the signal level goes high if the bit is 1, then returns to normal in the middle of the bit
time.
• Bipolar-RZ Bipolar Return-to-Zero
The signal level is normally low.
At the start of each bit time, the signal level goes high if the bit is 1, then returns to normal in the middle of the bit
time. On alternate pulses, the signal level goes negative if the bit is 1, then returns to normal in the middle of the bit
time.
 CHANNEL CAPACITY
Nyquist Bandwidth
Nyquist states that “if the rate of signal transmission is 2B, then a signal with frequencies no
greater than B is sufficient to carry the signal rate. The converse is also true.

Where, C = Channel capacity in bps

B = Bandwidth of the channel in Hz
M = Number of discrete voltage levels

Shannon Capacity Formula

Nyquist formula does not consider the noise effect. The Shannon capacity formula includes
that and says:

Where:
 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS

Introduction
Impair means to weaken or to decrease.
Impairments degrade the quality of signal in analog signals. In digital it introduces bit errors i.e.
a binary 1 is transformed into binary 0 and vice versa. In this unit we will be discussing some
types of impairments.

Attenuation
The strength of signal falls-off with distance over any transmission medium. For guided media
attenuation is logarithmic and is expressed in dB per unit distance. In unguided media
attenuation is a complex function of distance and the makeup of atmosphere.
 DELAY DISTORTION
Guided media attenuation is a It is particular to guided media. This
distortion is caused by the fact that the velocity of propagation of a signal
through a guided medium varies with frequency. For a band limited signal,
the velocity will be higher near the center frequency and fall off towards the
two edges of the band. Thus various frequency components will arrive at the
receiver at different times, resulting in phase shift between different
frequencies complex function of distance and the makeup of atmosphere.

Noise
Noise is unwanted signal that interferes and mixes up with the original signal
and ultimately modifies it.

There are two major types of noise:

• External Noise

• Internal Noise
 External Noise
• Atmospheric Noise:
• Lightning
• Thunderstorms
• Extraterrestrial Noise:
• Solar Noise
• Cosmic Noise
• Industrial Noise:
• Electric motor noise
• Engine noise
• Fluorescent lights
Internal Noise
• Thermal Agitation Noise: The noise generated in a resistive component due to
thermal agitation of electrons.

• Shot Noise: It is caused by random variations in the arrival of electrons (or

holes) at the output electrode of an amplifying device and appears as a randomly
varying noise current superimposed on the output signal.