Educational

Planning:

Approaches
and Models
Prepared by
FELIPE B. SULLERA, JR.
EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
APPROACHES
Educational Planning Approaches
Educational planning is concerned with
the problems of how to make the best use
of limited resources allocated to education
in view of the priorities given to different
stages of education or different sector of
education and the need of the economy.
According to Adesina (1982), there are
three rival approaches to educational
planning. The three rival approaches are:

1. The social demand approach

2. The manpower requirement approach
3. The cost benefit analysis
The Social Demand Approach
This approach requires the education authorities
to provide schools and find facilities for all students
who demand admission and who are qualified to
enter. Aghenta (1987) opined that this approach
looks on education, as service demanded by people
just like any other social services. Politicians in
developing countries often find the approach
expedient to use because of its appealing nature.
STEPS
o To estimate the proportion of students completing
school education and are likely to enter into higher
education.
o To estimate how many of these successful school
leaving students would actually apply for admission
to colleges.
o To determine how many of the applicants should
be given admission to higher education.
o To determine the length and duration of the study.
Factors influencing social demand of
• Cost of education education:
• Benefits accrued from education , both direct and indirect
• Government Policy
• Distance to the nearest schools and geographical distribution
of school places:
• Quality of Schooling
• Demographic Data
• Cultural factors may also affect enrolments
• Admission policies
Wastage and dropout
1. Cost of education:
o Low costs result in high enrolments and
high costs result in low enrolment.
o There are direct costs to the individual
such as fees , books , uniforms and
transport.
o There are also indirect costs to the
individual such as opportunity cost.
2. Benefits accrued from education , both
direct and indirect:
o If private benefits are high , there will be high
enrolment and if the benefits are low there will
be reduced enrolments.
o If the social benefits are high , the
government will be willing to invest more in
education.
3. Government policy:
This affects both the level of school fees to
be charged and financial aid from
government. If tuition charges are high ,
then , there may be low enrolments.
Consequently , there may be more
demand for government grants , stipends
and scholarships to both schools and
students.
4. Distance to the nearest schools and
geographical distribution of school places:
o Distance from schools may have a negative
effect on school enrolments " the further the
school , the lower the enrolments.
o In places where the schools are scattered,
enrolment levels may be affected.
5. Quality of schooling:
This can be measured in terms of
availability of qualified teachers , the
teacher student ratio and availability of
textbooks and other materials. If these
factors are positively available , they
affect the enrolments positively.
6. Demographic data:
Trends in both birth and mortality
rates affect enrolments as does
the size and growth of the school
age population.
7. Cultural factors may also affect
enrolments:
o Some communities do not consider the
education of girls to be that important.
o Girls are usually married off early in life.
These factors affect enrolment especially
of the girl child.
8. Admission policies
o Restrictions on the age of entry to different
levels have a negative effect on enrolment
o Promotion and repetition practices have a
negative effect on enrolment
o Setting of entry requirements for higher
education does affect enrolments.
o The examination system determines
enrolment to next level.
9. Wastage and dropout
These two factors affect
enrolment especially the gap
between the planned rates of
enrolment and the actual
enrolment.
Advantages
One of the most important advantages of this
approach is that it is a starting point in planning
education for the future. For instance , a major task
for most African countries , and indeed , other
developing countries at the time of independence ,
was to educate their people in order to bring about
social , economic and political development. This
was feasible by providing their populace with at
least free primary education as the latter was seen
as leading to such development.
The social-demand approach is a useful
tool to educational planners especially
when they formulate educational plans -
because planning is done for the entire
society and not for the individuals. Here ,
an estimate of the population growth
trend is determined and education is thus
provided.
Disadvantages
First , it does not show whether there is an
alternative means of allocating resources. In
other words , this approach tends to ignore the
larger problem of national allocation of
resources. For instance , this approach
assumes that the cost factor is not important.
Yet , the costs are at the base of the ability of
the government to provide education.
Second , the social demand approach
takes very little account of the
employment sector. Hence ,it ignores the
character and patterns of the manpower
needed by the modern sector of the
economy. This , eventually , may end up in
a situation whereby there may be an over-
production of one category of personnel
against too few in another category.
Third, there is extensive construction of schools and
large enrolments are realized all these against very
limited resources. The end result is that there is thin
spreading of these resources across the- board
which eventually affects the quality and
effectiveness of the education system. Such a
situation has been observed in developing
countries, where large numbers of school leavers
cannot get employment in the modern sector of the
economy.
MANPOWER DEMAND APPROACH
Manpower approach or model entails an
analysis of demand and supply of manpower.
on the supply side, one has to take stock of
manpower according to field of specialization
and levels of education as well as the
enrollment across levels of education and field
of education in both the formal and the non-
formal education.
•Manpower approach is an educational
planning approach that has it that
planning should consider human
resource in all fields required for country.
Education planning should be skilled
based, expected man power.
•Based on demand supply principle, need
based.
•The focus of this approach is to
forecast the manpower needs of
economy. This is to say that it
stresses output from the
educational system to meet the
manpower needs at some future
date.
 FOCUSES OF THE APPROACH
1.Specification of the composition of
manpower need at some future date. Ex:
2015-2020
2.Specification of manpower availabilities Ex:
in 2010
3.Specification which reconciles the former
specification with the later.
 ADVANTAGES OF THE APPROACH
1.Manpower could usefully call attention to
extreme gaps and imbalances in the
education output pattern that need remedy.
2.It helps to reduce the labor cost as excess
staff can be identified and thereby
overstaffing can be avoided.
3. It gives educators useful guidance on how roughly
educational qualifications of the labor force ought to be
developed in the future. That is, the relative proportion of
people who would have primary education, secondary
education and various amount of post-secondary training.
4.The unemployment and underemployment which may
result from some overemphasis on manpower approach
may become a challenge to move towards the right kind of
education which may be development-oriented, and
thereby creating its own job.
5. Higher productivity- productivity level increases when
resources are utilized in best possible manner. Higher
productivity is the result of minimum wastage of time,
money, efforts and energies. This is possible through the
staffing and its related activities ( Performance appraisal,
training and development, remuneration)
6. Key to managerial functions the four managerial
function, i.e. planning, organizing, directing and
controlling are based upon the manpower. Human
resources help in the implementation of all these
managerial activities. Therefore, staffing becomes a key to
all managerial functions.
7. Efficient utilization

Efficient management of personnel

becomes an important function in the
industrialization world of today. Setting of
large scale enterprises require
management of large scale manpower. It
can be effectively done through staffing
function.
 WEAKNESESS OF THE
APPROACH
1. It gives educational planner a limited
direction in the sense that it does not tell what
can be actually achieved in every level of
education. Ex: primary education, secondary
education, etc.
2. The approach says nothing about primary
education, which is not considered to be work
connected. By implication, manpower
approach suggests the reduction of the
expansion of primary education until the
nation is rich enough to expand it. Hence,
attention is focused on the cream of education
that will contribute to manpower development
in the society.
3. Most manpower needs are
mostly needed in the urban
employment. Thus, the planner
who may be called to plan is not
given any useful consideration
about education in the rural areas.
4. It is impossible to make reliable
forecast of manpower
requirements far enough ahead of
time because of many economic,
technological uncertainties which
are involved.
5. Education is far from just
matching demand and supply.
It is for total liberation of the
human person so that he can
play a meaningful role in the
society.
COST OF BENEFITS ANALYSIS
Adesina (1981) noted that cost-benefits approach looks at
each level of education as investment in human beings
with the purpose that the returns will help to improve the
whole economy. Assumptions —the wages/salaries paid to
worker reflect differences in their productivity, variations
in productivity result from different amount and kind of
education people receive. It is a mode of analysis of
current relationship between education and income.
Education is perceived by the approach
from two angles, namely:

i. the social rates of return

ii) Private rates of return
The social rates of return
This stresses the benefit to be derived by the state
of investing in a particular form of education. The
cost of Education is usually borne by the society as a
whole, and can be calculated by equating the total
present value earnings of an average educated
person before tax with benefits to be gained from
alternative investments, in physical capital.
The Private Rates of Return
This is the investment by private individual and the
expected benefits for acquiring a particular type of
education. This is calculated by equating the direct
and out of pocket costs of students plus earnings
foregone by them while studying, to the present
value of earnings after tax e.g. direct cost + pocket
money + foregone earning.
Advantages of Cost-Benefits Analysis
Approach
1. By looking at the age earnings structure of the educated
person, it is possible to measure or quantify the increase in
productivity of an educated person.
2. The analysis can show or suggest the directions in which
education systems in a society should expand so as to
maximize the earning capacity of their products.
3. It shows the relationship between
the cost of gaining more education and
the increase in payment which results
from additional education.
 Limitations of the Approach
1. It is a wrong assumption to say that
salaries reflect productivity.
2. It is difficult to measure the benefits,
which derives from investing in any type of
education.
3. In developing countries, differentials in earnings of workers cannot be attributed to additional
education acquired but to other things such as habits, customers, family background, primordial factor
etc.

4. Primary education gives the highest return to society, according to some studies done on the
calculation of the social rates of return for all levels of education.
5. The salaries of civil servants are influenced more by economic variables than by
productivity considerations.

6. A financial return from education has been inflated in by past scarcity of people with
particular type and level of education
7. Civil servants salaries owe much to
economic context of the country but little
to productivity considerations
EDUCATIONAL
PLANNING
MODELS
 What is a process?
•series of steps followed in doing an
activity
•can be illustrated in graphical or symbolic
term
Planning Process Model
• supplies guidance in what ought to be done in
practice
• dictates explicitly what people ought to do
(act accordingly, behave rationally &
ascertain successful completion of process of
activities)
 Setting of Goals,
Objectives, & Targets
• Goal –a broad statement of
an image of the future the
organization seeks to achieve

• Objective –medium-range
expectation which is pursued
to satisfy the goal

• Target –most specific

statement of purpose which is
simple, measurable, time
bound, and achievable
 SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS
• requires conducting of survey and
research studies

• survey calls for gathering of socio-

cultural, demographic, economic,
physical, and natural data and
information in the environment

• survey indicating past and present

performances, programs and
project, manpower resources,
budget, infrastructures and
equipment

• Data (analyzed and used as input

for planning)
 Policy Statements &
Strategies
• once goals, objectives, and
targets are crafted, more
specific policy statements and
strategies are framed for each
of the areas of concern (social,
economic, physical, political,
and administration)

• integration of these to a
framework plan for a
particular period serves as
guide to the organization
 Prioritization of
Programs &
Projects

* determined & done

through the conduct
of feasibility studies
 Implementation &
Monitoring

• Implementation –actual
carrying out of funded
programs and projects by
concerned offices and
individuals of the organization
• Programs and projects are
monitored to find out if they
are implemented according to
the plan. Otherwise,
corrective measures should be
readily instituted to put back
the project on track
 Evaluation & Plan
Update
• Results, in terms of outputs,
after a year of
implementation, and
outcomes after about 4-5
years of implementation, in
terms of effects and impacts,
are evaluated
• These outputs and outcomes
discussed with managers and
planners for decision-making
and updating the plan.
 Evaluation & Plan
Update
• Results, in terms of outputs,
after a year of
implementation, and
outcomes after about 4-5
years of implementation, in
terms of effects and impacts,
are evaluated
• These outputs and outcomes
discussed with managers and
planners for decision-making
and updating the plan.
 BELL’S
STRATEGIC
PLANNING
MODEL
 Bell’s Strategic Planning
Model
•developed by Northwest Regional
Education Laboratory in cooperation
with Oregon Education Coordinating
Council
• purpose: to increase both intra-system
and inter-system planning effectiveness
 INFORMATION SYSTEM
•takes care of all data and
information gathered and used as
feedback in decision-making and
planning process
 STRATEGIC PLANNING
• identification of problems
•definition of policy objectives
•assignment of institutional roles
and resources
 TACTICAL PLANNING
• transforms policy objectives and general
allocation of resources into selection of
programs
• identification of alternative strategies
• developing specific program designs for
action
 OPERATIONAL PLANNING
•control or action ensures that
performance proceeds according to
plans, as well as monitors and evaluate
results
•Program implementation, monitoring,
and evaluation
Herman’s
Strategic
Planning
Model
 Herman’s Strategic
Planning Model

•focuses on a school as the

frame of planning reference
A. STRATEGIC PLANNING
Vision 1

Beliefs and Internal External Critical Success

Values Scanning Scanning Factors

Vision 2 S
M
i
Needs Assessment W
OT
s What is? What Should be?
s
i
o
n
Strategic Goals
 Beliefs and Values
• creation & consensus of vision by school leaders and
stakeholders
• role of school is considered in mega, macro, & micro
environments
• the planners are able to situate where they are and core
values and beliefs of school leaders & stakeholders are
identified for incorporation into vision
 ENVIRONMENTAL SCANNING
• internal & external
• generated data and information would
provide the present state of school and
obtaining conditions, the environment would
dictate which are facilitative and
impediments in the attainment of the
preferred ideal vision
 CRITICAL SUCCESS FACTORS

•if it enhances the attainment of

the desired future vision, it will be
retained
•if it hinder it, it will be eliminated
 MISSION STATEMENT

•consider the major role of the

school in the mega, macro,
and micro environments
 STRATEGIC GOALS

•consider the major role of the

school in the mega, macro,
and micro environments
 SWOT ANALYSIS
• data gathered laid out in 2x2 table to analytically
determine which enhance or impede the
attainment of the preferred ideal vision
• Strengths & Opportunities (further built upon and
capitalized on)
• Weaknesses & Threats (remedied or eliminated)
B. TACTICAL PLANNING
Strategic Objective

Decision Rules
Achievable
Affordable Priority Selection
Meaningful
80% Success

Develop Action Plans

-Brainstorming
-Force Field Analysis
-Cost Benefit
-Select Best Alternative

Allocate Resources
and
Operate Plans
 STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES

•formulation of specific
objectives for every goal
that has been framed
 DECISION RULE
•prioritization of objectives
undertaken with the use of a
commonly-agreed upon set of
decision rules
 PRIORITY SELECTION

• objectives are prioritized

 DEVELOP ACTION PLANS
•plans are subjected to testing or analysis
to determine the best alternative
strategies
•testing involves the use of brainstorming,
force field analysis, cost-benefit & cost-
effective analyses
 ALLOCATE RESOURCES AND
OPERATE PLANS
•allocation of resources to the best
alternative plans and strategies
•implementing & monitoring them
and finally evaluating the results
Kaufman’s
Strategic
Planning
Model
 Kaufman’s Strategic Planning
Model
• systems framework model by Kaufman
• model has undergone extensive improvements
during the last 2 decades
• initially presented in systems analysis of 6 steps
• Organization Elements Model (OEM) – systems
framework of 4 major clusters of 13 steps &
improved into 3 major clusters of 12 steps
 IDEAL VISION

•Identificationof preferred ideal

vision in the mega, macro, and
micro perspectives
 IDENTIFY AND SELECT NEEDS
• Identificationof values & beliefs and data
gathering on the internal organization and
external environment
• Inputted in the continuous improvement of
formulating the ideal vision
• Critical
success factors are determined to guide
educational partners in planning and thinking
process of the strategic planning phase
 DEFINE CURRENT MISSION

•Framed ideal vision dictates the elements

of the mission of the organization which
commits to deliver and contribute to that
vision
•Mission –broad description of purpose
DERIVE MISSION OBJECTIVE
•Should be based on the mission, and
mission on the vision
•State both where the organization is
headed and the precise criteria for
determining accomplishments
 IDENTIFY SWOT
• Analysis of identified Strengths, Weaknesses,
Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) becomes
the organizational barometer indicating the
organizational & environmental factors that
enhance or impede the attainment of the
specific objectives.
 DERIVE LONG AND SHORT-
TERM MISSION

•Based on the SWOT, long and

short-term missions (targets)
are derived
 DERIVE STRATEGIC PLAN
•Developed through the conduct of
function and system analysis
•Resultsare in the form of products
designed to attain the objectives
 DERIVE TACTICAL AND
OPERATIONAL PLANS
•Method-means analysis
•Analysis identifies possible ways and
means for the for doing and undertaking
products, tasks, and outputs
 MAKE, BUY, AND OBTAIN
RESOURCES

•Once products and different

means are completed, funds and
resources are allocated
 IMPLEMENT
• Tasks and products are implemented
• Ascertainment of successful plan
implementation requires developing of
structures within the organization, installing
a Management Information System (MIS),
and a monitoring system
 CONTINUOUS
IMPROVEMENT/FORMATIVE
EVALUATION
•After a short period of time, formative
evaluation is undertaken to determine
whether or not outputs approximated
the stated objectives and mission
DETERMINE EFFECTIVENESS &
EFFECIENCY
•Conduct of summative evaluation
determines the levels of efficiency &
effectiveness of the outputs maturing
into outcomes
REVISE/IMPROVE AS REQUIRED

•Outputs & outcomes serve as

inputs to revise if not improve the
strategic & tactical planning
process
FRANCO PLANNING MODEL
•Florencio Arica Jr., who has worked with
Dr. Franco notes that this model has
been the subject of countless variations
in many educational planning exercises in
schools, universities, educational
agencies & foundations, both public &
private.
 1. ANALYSIS OF THE EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT
• Students or learners
• Forces for change in the working environment of
the school
• Opportunities for consortia with other institutions
Result: What programs/ services we might do,
expand, try or drop
 2. CLARITY OF VISION, MISSION, &
VALUES FOR CHANGE
• Legal mandate
• Vision & Philosophy
• Mission/ Values System
• Organizational culture & lifestyle
Result: What we want to do
3. ANALYSIS OF THE EXTERNAL
ORGANIZATION
• Human & non-human resources
• Programs, services & projects
• Accomplishments & outputs over the years
Result: What we can do & cannot do
4. LONG-TERM DECISIONS ON STRATEGIC
ISSUES & STRATEGIES FOR INSTUTION
• Addressing the main issues
• Clarity of vision, mission statement, strategy, and goals &
objectives
• Formulation of programs, projects & activities
• Preparation of detailed work plans, schedules & budgets
• Targeting of outputs & results and their proper monitoring &
evaluation
Result: What we should do
 It doesn’t mean
that everything must fit –sometimes
stretching & flexibility are needed to
make sure the institution can do
what it wants to do or it might do
something about, resulting hopefully
in the best things it should do.

“Stretch, flexibility, adjustments, not

exactly all fit.” –Franco’s continuing
reminder
 DO
NOT BE
AFRAID
TO
FAIL!
THANK YOU FOR LISTENING!
Source

*Adesina S. (1981) Some Aspects of School Management. Ibadan: Educational

Industries Ltd.
*Aghenta J.A. (1987) Towards A System Approach to Planning of Secondary
Education in Nigeria. Ile-ife: University of Ife-Press
*Longe R. (1987) Fundamentals of Educational Planning Ibadan: Adejare Press
*http://approachestoeducationalplanning-130212021850-phpapp02.slideshar
e.com
*https://educationalplanningmodels-180209025411.scribd.com