PRESENTATION # 1

CE 527 – Earthquake
Engineering
 PRESENTATION # 1
I. Definition of Earthquake
II. Earthquake Prone Areas
III. Stick-Slip Theory & Earthquakes
IV. Epicenter versus Focus
V. Intensity versus Magnitude
VI. The Philippines as an
Earthquake Country
VII. Hazards Posed by Earthquakes
VIII. Tsunamis: Why and When They
Occur
I. DEFINITION OF EARTHQUAKE

- is a feeble shaking to violent trembling of the

ground produced by the sudden displacement of
rocks or rock materials below the earth’s surface.

- Sudden displacements along faults fissures

in the solid and rigid layer of the earth
generate TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES

- Those induced by rising lava or magma

beneath active volcanoes generate
VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKES
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES may occur at depths that
are;
a) Shallow ---------- from 0 to 70 kilometers
b) Intermediate ---- from 70 to 300 kilometers
c) Deep -------------- from 300 to 700 kilometers

Shallow earthquakes occur along active faults, at

places where parts of the earth’s outer layer are moving
away from each other, and near deep-sea trenches.

Intermediate to deep-focus earthquakes are confined

to areas associated with deep-sea trenches and zones
where two parts of earths outer layer are in a state of
collision.
Earthquakes of Volcanic Origin are triggered by
fracturing of rocks, by rising magma/lava or by the
upward flow of the magma itself.
--- These occur beneath the edifice of
active volcanoes and therefore at very shallow depths
(from less than 1 km to about 30 kms deep)

--- Some volcanic quakes may be strong

enough to cause landslides, ground fissuring and
destruction of buildings & other man made structures
on or near active volcanoes.
2. EARTHQUAKE PRONE AREAS

1. ALONG TECTONIC PLATE MARGINS

• The earth has an outermost shell, about 80 kilometers

thick, which is solid and rigid.
• This outermost shell of the earth is called the
LITHOSPHERE.
• The Lithosphere is subdivided into small and large
pieces with some piece large enough to contain
continents.
• This pieces of lithosphere are called TECTONIC
PLATES or simply PLATES.
• Beneath the lithosphere is another thin shell called the
ASTHENOSPHERE which can be made to flow by slowly
applied deformed forces but behaves essentially as a
solid.
• The lithosphere and its tectonic plates float on the
asthenosphere.
• Because the asthenosphere is being induced to flow by
convection cells produced by rising hot materials from
the earths interior and by the sinking of these materials
back into the earths interior as they experience cooling
during their upward journey, the floating tectonic plates
are being jostled about and displaced relative to one
another. This jostling of plates and the relative
displacements of plates along their margins generate
Tectonic earthquakes.
 THREE TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARY along which
relative movements of neighboring plates can occur and
trigger the occurrence of earthquakes.
• Divergent Plate Margin ----- two neighboring tectonic
plates move away from each other or are pulled apart.
• Convergent Plate Margin ----- two neighboring
tectonic plates move towards and push against each
other.
• Transform Fault ----- it is a vertical surface that cuts
and breaks the continuity of divergent and convergent
plate margins.
2. ALONG ACTIVE FAULTS

• Faults ---- are breaks or zones of weakness in rocks

along which displacements had occurred or can occur
again. They may extend for hundreds of kilometers
across the earths surface and tens of kilometers
downward, even down to the base of the lithosphere.
• Active Faults ---- are faults showing signs or
documented history of recent displacements.
 THREE TYPES OF FAULTS based on the orientation of
fault surfaces and nature of relative movement of
displaced rock masses.
• Normal Fault ----- has an inclined surface and is
characterized by the downward sliding of the fault block
situated above the fault surface.
• Thrust or Reverse Fault ----- has also an inclined
surface but sloping only about thirty degrees and is
characterized by the upward sliding of the fault block
located above the fault surface.
• Wrench or Strike Slip Fault ----- has a very steep to
vertical surface along which one fault block may move
horizontally to the left or to the right with respect to the
opposite block.
Rate of Motion Along Plate Margins and Faults
------ The rates of movement or velocities of relative
motion between adjacent plates and fault blocks range
from about one to twelve centimeters per year.
------ These velocities are slow by human standards but;
10 centimeters per year will yield a total
displacement of 100 kilometers in only 1 million years ….
3. STICK-SLIP THEORY AND EARTHQUAKES
------ Tectonic plates continue to move and there are
places that they got stuck to each other due to friction.
------ Enough energy will have to be stored to overcome
frictional resistance so that plates can continue to move.
------ Thus, rocks along the stuck plate margins and
nearby faults are strained by plate motions and when they
are sufficiently strained to overcome the locking frictional
bond, slippage occurs thereby releasing suddenly the
stored energy.
------ After slipping, the rocks along a plate margin or an
active fault are locked together again by friction and begin
storing energy which shall be released during the next
earthquake, ten to 100 years later.
4. EPICENTER VERSUS FOCUS

• When we hear about an earthquake hitting an area,

what we would like to know instinctively and immediately
is where its location, how far are we from an earthquake
or a specific geographic point on the earths surface.
EPICENTER of an Earthquake ---- is the point on the
earths surface situated nearest to where the earthquake
exactly originated.
FOCUS of an Earthquake ---- is the point of origin
where the initial slip or sliding took place usually it is
deep in the earths interior.

---- Usually the epicenter of the earthquake is

obtained by projecting vertically to the earth’s surface the
determined location of the focus in the earth’s interior.
4. LOCATING THE EPICENTER

• The epicenter of an earthquake is determined using

differences in arrival times of the primary or P waves and
secondary or S waves.
• These values are obtained from the instrumental
records of seismic waves by a network of seismographs.
• At least three records from properly spaced seismic
stations forming an open triangle and with synchronized
timing system are required for accurate determination of
the epicenter.
• For seismic networks without synchronized timing
systems, the epicentral distances from each station are
determined by computation or from pre-computed
velocity tables using S-minus-P or the difference in
arrival time between the P and S waves.

• After determining the epicentral distances, the

epicenter can then be determined graphically or
analytically with the use of computers.
• The most common graphical technique is the CIRCLE
METHOD.
4. INTENSITY VERSUS MAGNITUDE
• There are two general ways to describe the strength of an
earthquake.
1) First Method: It is based on how people, man-made
structures, natural objects and land surfaces behave and
react in the areas affected by an earthquake.
------ The first method is the INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE

2) Second Method: It is based on instrumentally-

derived information and correlates strength with the amount
of total energy released at the earthquakes point of origin.
----- The second method is the MAGNITUDE OF
EARTHQUAKE
INTENSITY OF AN EARTHQUAKE

----- Defined as the measure of the earthquakes local

destructiveness.
----- In the Philippines, the MODIFIED ROSSI-FOREL
EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY SCALE is used.
---- The weakest earthquake that can be felt by
exceptionally sensitive people is given a scale of
Intensity I.
---- The strongest earthquake felt by many people
and brings about many casualties and destructions on
man made structures is given a scale of Intensity IX.
The ROSSI-FOREL EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY SCALE

Intensity Scale Description

Hardly Perceptible Shock.
Felt under favorable conditions, only
I by an experienced observer or a person
with high sensitivity
Extremely Feeble Shock.
Felt by some people at rest or in the
II upper floors of tall buildings

Very Feeble Shock.

III Felt by several persons at rest.
Duration and direction of ground
vibrations may be perceptible. Dizziness
or nausea may be experienced by a few.
Intensity Scale Description
Feeble Shock.
Felt generally by people indoors; by
IV few people outdoors. Hanging objects
swing slightly. Frames of houses crack.
Moderate Shock.
Felt generally by everyone. Hanging
V objects swing freely. Tall vases and
unstable objects are overturned. Light
sleepers are awakened.
Fairly Strong Shock.
VI Generally awakens those who are
asleep. Some people are frightened
enough to rush out of buildings. Hanging
objects like lamps and small potted
plants oscillate. Very old or poorly built
houses and other man-made structures
are slightly damaged.
Intensity Scale Description
Strong Shock.
Overturns movable and unstable objects
VII like bookshelves and drawers. Well built
houses maybe slightly damaged; old or poorly
built structures, considerably damaged.
Some cracks may be develop in fishpond
dikes and road surfaces. Some landslides
may occur in mountain slopes and along steep
banks.
Very Strong Shock.
Causes panic among people. Trees are
VIII shaken strongly. Some buildings may be
partially or totally destroyed. The flow of
springs and conditions of wells change. Sand
and mud are ejected from fissures in soft
grounds to form “sand boils”. Cracks form in
concrete dikes of fishponds. Small landslides
and rockfalls occur.
Intensity Scale Description
Extremely Strong Shock.
Causes widespread panic among people in
IX the affected area. Many buildings are
partially or totally destroyed. Ground
fissures and sand boils form. Subsidence
may occur in some sites, especially those on
soft grounds. Major landslides and rock falls
occur.
MAGNITUDE OF AN EARTHQUAKE
----- Defined as the measure of energy released by an
earthquake.
----- Magnitude is calculated mathematically using the
amount and duration of movements that ground
vibration causes on the needle of a standard
seismograph.
---- Charles F. Richter, an american seismologist,
devised a scale for expressing the total energy
released by an earthquake, following the suggestion of
H.O. Wood.
---- In 1935, Richter proposed a magnitude scale
which is open-ended scale of 1 to 9. This scale is the
now famous and internationally used RICHTER
SCALE.
 ----- In Richter Scale, for every unit increase in magnitude,
the seismic energy released increases by 30 times.
Thus, an earthquake with Magnitude 5 has an
accompanying seismic energy 30 times more than a
Magnitude 4 earthquake but 30 times less than the one with
Magnitude 6.
***** It can be told that a Magnitude 8 earthquake has
a seismic energy equaling 10,000 atomic bombs of the
vintage that annihilated Hiroshima during world war II
The RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE

Magnitude Scale Description

Earthquakes with M below 1 are only
detectable when an ultrasensitive
I seismometer is operated under
favorable conditions.
Most earthquakes with M below 3 are
“Hardly perceptible shocks” and are not
II felt. They are only recorded by
seismographs of nearby stations.
Earthquakes with M 3 to 4 are “very
feeble shocks” and only felt near the
III epicenter.
Magnitude Scale Description
Earthquakes with M 4 to 5 are the
“feeble shocks” where damages are not
IV usually reported.
Earthquakes with M 5 to 6 are the
“earthquakes of moderate strength” and
V are felt over wide areas; some of them
cause small local damages near the
epicenter.
Earthquakes with M 6 to 7 are the
“strong earthquakes” and are
VI accompanied by local damages near the
epicenters. First class seismological
stations can observe them wherever
they occur within the earth.
Magnitude Scale Description
Earthquakes with M 7 to 8 are the
“major earthquakes” and can cause
VII considerable damages near the
epicenters. Shallow-seated or near
surface major earth when they occur
under the sea, may generate tsunamis.
First class seismological stations can
observe them wherever they occur within
the earth.
Earthquakes with M 8 to 9 are the
“great earthquakes” occurring once or
twice a year. When they occur in land
VIII areas, damages affect wide areas. When
they occur under the sea, considerable
tsunamis are produced. Many
aftershocks occur in areas approximately
100 to 1000 kilometers in diameter.
Magnitude Scale Description
Earthquakes with M over 9 have never
occurred since the data based on the
IX seismographic observations became
available.
5. THE PHILIPPINES AS AN EARTHQUAKE COUNTRY
The Philippine Archipelago lies between two major tectonic
plates of the World:
----- The northwestward moving Pacific Plate is
presently pushing the Philippine Sea Plate beneath the
eastern side of the archipelago at 7 centimeters/year.
----- The oceanic parts of the slower-moving Eurasian
Plate are being subducted along the western side of Luzon
and Mindoro at 3 centimeters/year.
The plate interactions and displacements along the
Philippine Fault Zone which decouples the northwestward
motion of the Pacific with the southeastward motion of the
Eurasian Plate and movements along other active faults
are responsible for the present-day high seismicity of the
Philippine Archipelago.
The IDENTIFIED EARTHQUAKE GENERATORS IN
THE PHILIPPINE ARCHIPELAGO are:
1) Philippine Trench 2) East Luzon Trench
3) Manila Trench 4) Negros Trench
5) Collisional Zone between Palawan & Mindoro
6) Collisional Zone between Zamboanga Peninsula and
Western Mindanao 7) Sulu Trench
8) Cotabato Trench 9) Davao Trench
10) Philippine Fault Zone and its many branches
11) Many Active Faults (Lubang, Tablas, Casiguran, and
Mindanao Faults)

----- From 1960 to 1988, the Philippines has recorded

9,763 epicenters of earthquakes. This proves that our
country is seismically active.
---- At least five earthquakes per day occur in the
Philippines. The most seismically active part is its eastern
section containing eastern Mindanao, Samar & Leyte with
an average of 16 perceptible earthquakes per year.

---- The other relatively active parts are found at the

eastern side of northern Luzon and the area and vicinity of
Lubang Island and Mindoro.
 The Philippine Destructive Earthquakes & their Impacts

Date Epicenter Intensity Magnitude Casualty Injured

02 July Bacon, Sorsogon VII 8.3 13 101
1954
01 April Lanao, VII 7.5 291 713
1955 Mindanao
02 Aug Casiguran, VII 7.3 270 600
1968 Aurora
07 Apr Baler, Quezon VII 7.3 15 200
1970
17 Aug Moro Gulf, VII 7.9 3,739 8,000
1976 MIndanao
16 July Cabanatuan City, VIII 7.7 1,283 2,786
1990 Nueva Ecija
6. HAZARDS POSED BY EARTHQUAKES
---- The destructive effects of earthquakes are due mainly
to intense ground shaking or vibration.
---- Because of severe ground shaking:
a) low and tall buildings may tilt, split, topple or collapse.
b) foundation of roads, railroad tracks and bridges may
break.
c) electric posts may tilt or topple.
d) water pipes and other utility installations may get
dislocated.
e) dams and similar structures may break and cause
flooding.
f) landslides and other forms of mass movement may occur
in hilly and mountaineous areas.
g) tsunamis or seiches may be generated.
---- Earthquakes generate body and surface seismic waves.

---- Waves are propagated in all directions either by

traveling through the earth’s interior (body waves) or outer
layers of the earth (surface waves)
Body waves ---- Compressional or P wave and
Shear or S wave.
Surface waves ---- Rayleigh and Love waves
---- The first seismic waves to arrive during an earthquake
are the P-waves and therefore the first to cause ground
vibration.

---- P waves are propagated like sound waves, thus they

cause materials to shake back and forth in response to
alternating compression (pushing) and expansion (pulling)
of the ground materials.

---- After few seconds, S waves shall arrive to further cause

the ground to swing to and fro but along directions different
from those experienced during the arrival of P waves.
Time Interval between the arrivals of S & P waves as a function of distance

Distance from the Epicenter Time elapsed before arrival of

S waves

1 to 5 kilometers Almost immediately after

arrival of P waves
10 kilometers 2.5 seconds
20 kilometers 5 seconds
30 kilometers 5.5 seconds
40 kilometers 7 seconds
50 kilometers 7.5 seconds
60 kilometers 8 seconds
70 kilometers 9 seconds
80 kilometers 10 seconds
90 kilometers 11 seconds
100 kilometers 12 seconds
---- Example if P waves moves along east-west directions,
S waves will be moving along north-south directions.
---- P & S waves are the ones responsible for damages &
destruction s associated with major earthquakes.
---- Love & Rayleigh waves are the last to arrive.
Love waves cause the ground to sway from side to
side while Rayleigh waves induces it to rotate up and down.
 Difference between P & S waves from Love & Rayleigh waves

P & S Waves Love & Rayleigh Waves

-- Shakes back & forth and -- Sway from side to side and
swings to & fro. induces to rotate up & down.
-- Body waves (occurs in the -- Surface waves (occurs at
earths interior) the outer layers of the earth)
-- Cause major destructions and -- Decays less rapidly away
damages especially places near from the epicenter & causes
the epicenter. damages & destructions in
places far from the epicenter.
-- Cause mainly high frequency -- Cause less than 1 hertz or
(more than 1 hertz or more than less than one cycle per
one cycle per second) second vibrations
7. TSUNAMIS: WHY AND WHEN THEY OCCUR
Definition of Tsunamis:

--- are giant sea waves generated by under-the-sea

earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
--- are also called long water waves (with wave
periods in 5 to 60 minutes or more) generated
impulsively by mechanisms such as exploding
islands, submerged landslides, rock falls into bays or
the ocean, tectonic displacements associated with
earthquakes and under water explosions of nuclear
devices.
--- It can only occur when the earthquake is shallow-
seated and strong enough (M7.0) to displace parts of
the seabed and disturb the mass of water over it.
---- The large waves of a tsunami are preceded by initial
lowering of water level even beyond the lowest tidal levels
attained at a given area.

---- During the retreat of sea level, interesting sights are

often revealed. Fishes may be stranded on dry land
thereby attracting people to collect them. Also coral flats
maybe exposed.
---- These scenes tempt people to flock to the shoreline
thereby increasing the number of people at risk.
---- After the retreat of the sea level, the large waves
follows. The time interval between successive waves is
usually 20 to 30 minutes.
---- Usual velocities for tsunamis vary from 700 to 800
kilometers per hour, depending on the water depth.
---- In deep waters, tsunamis travel faster while in
shallow waters, their velocity is drastically reduced.
---- Factors that affects the destructiveness of tsunamis
includes: a) shallow depths at the coastal area
b) irregularities of the sea floor c) coastal topography
d) presence of shoals and embayments.
---- Tsunami waves sometimes reach considerable
distance inland. During their advance and retreat they
destroy woodlands, buildings and infrastructures.
8. TSUNAMIS IN THE PHILIPPINES

---- From 1603 to 1975, 27 earthquakes generated

tsunamis which wrecked considerable damage to
coastal town.
---- On August 16, 1976 the Moro Gulf earthquake
produced tsunami which devastated the Southwest
coast of Mindanao and left more than 3,000 people
dead, with at least 1,000 people missing. More than
8,000 people were injured and approximately 12,000
families were rendered homeless by 5 meter-high
waves.
 Tsunami Intensity Scale

Intensity Scale Description

1 Very Light
--- Waves not perceptible; recorded on tide
gauges.
2 Light
--- Waves noticed only by experienced sea
dwellers, maybe noticed on flat shores.
3 Rather Strong
--- Generally noticed; gently sloping coasts are
flooded; light vessels carried ashore; slight
reversal of river flows near the coast.
4 Strong
--- Significant flooding of the shore; light
structures damaged; sea vessel s and light ships
displaced inland or to sea.
Intensity Scale Description

5 Very Strong
---- General flooding of the shores; solid
structures damaged; light structures destroyed;
all vessels except very large ships drifted inland
or to sea; harbors damaged.
6 Disastrous
---- Destruction of man-made structures for
some distance inland; trees uprooted; deep
coastal flooding; big ships damaged.
8. TSUNAMI WARNING

---- In view of the far reaching effects and destructiveness

of tsunami, a Pacific-wide warning system had been
established mainly to inform people on the coasts around
the Pacific Ocean when a tsunami had been generated.
---- The Pacific Tsunami Information Center, which is
located in Hilo, Hawaii disseminates warnings to various
countries which are expected to be affected by the
tsunami.
9. WHAT ONE NEEDS TO KNOW TO SURVIVE A TSUNAMI

---- Beware of the tidal conditions around your area.

If unusual sea conditions like extreme lowering of the sea
level are observed, it is best to regard this as warning for
an approaching tsunami and immediately move towards
higher grounds.
---- An earthquake is a natural tsunami warning.
Do not stay in low lying coastal areas after a strong
earthquake has been felt.
---- A tsunami is not a single wave but a series of waves.
Whenever a tsunami strikes, stay out of the danger area
until absolutely sure that the last waves had passed.
---- Never go to shore to watch a tsunami.
Anybody who can see the waves is usually too near to
escape and survive their devastating effects.
---- Take heed of tsunami warnings.
These are issued to protect you from the waves generated
either by a distant earthquake or by a local event.
---- A tsunami may be relatively small in one area but it can
be a very large and destructive wave in another site only
several kilometers away.
This fact is explained by the wave modifying effect of the
submarine topography in respective areas.
HOW TO REDUCE EARTHQUAKE LOSSES?

WHAT TO DO BEFORE THE EARTHQUAKE?

--- THE KEY TO EFFECTIVE PREVENTION IS PLANNING.

--- Evaluate the structural soundness of the buildings
and places where you frequently stay.
--- Determine whether the site is traversed by a fault
--- Determine also other sources of potential hazards
like steep hill slopes, hanging heavy objects, dams,
storage tanks falling debris, etc.
--- PREPARE YOUR PLACE OF RESIDENCE FOR THE
EVENT.

--- Latches should be installed on drawers, cabinets

and cupboards.
--- Heavy materials should be identified and placed in
the lower compartments of cabinets.
--- Breakable items should be secured while harmful
chemicals and flammable materials should be stored
properly to minimize the possibility of falls or spills.
---- Strap heavy furniture to restrict sliding or toppling
during earthquakes.

---- Familiarize yourself with your place of work. Know

and master the routes to take to get out of your building.
---- Find and mark the places where fire extinguishers,
first aid kits, alarms, utilities and communication facilities
are located.

---LASTLY, PLAN ON COPING FOR THE EVENT.

---- It is wiser to prepare an emergency plan to cope with

the disaster than to regret the absence of anticipation
later.
---- Prepare a stock of potable water, flashlight, radio and
batteries, spare clothes and some food packed and
ready to take with you in case an earthquake forces you
to evacuate your place.
WHAT TO DO DURING THE EARTHQUAKE?

1. If you are indoors, stay there.

2. If you are outside, move to an open area away from
power lines, posts, trees, walls, etc.
3. When driving a vehicle during the earthquake, pull to
the side of the road and stop.
4. In crowded places like stores, theatres, malls and
churches, do not rush to the exit.
5. If you are residing in a coastal area, always be aware
of tsunamis and immediately run to higher grounds.
WHAT TO DO IMMEDIATELY AFTER THE
EARTHQUAKE?

1. Check yourself and others for injuries.

2. Wear shoes and protection.
3. Use flashlight when searching.
4. Check for fires and if any, have it controlled.
5. Check your water, electrical, or gas lines for defects
6. Clean up spills immediately
7. Never touch fallen electrical wirings or objects
touched by these wires
8. Do not use the telephone except for emergency calls
9. Gather information from battery operated radios or from
victim assistance centers which the government shall
provide for the purpose.
10. Do not use your vehicle unless there is an emergency.
11. Be prepared for aftershocks.
12. Obey public safety precautions
13. Take note of what you observe and be prepared to
inform authorities of the presence of victims needing
assistance, materials needing attention and information
of scientific value.
14. If you must evacuate, leave a message on where you
are headed and take with you first aid kit, flashlight,
radios, food, clothes, etc.
PHILVOLCS AND SEISMOLOGY

PHILVOLCS --- Philippine Institute of Volcanology and

Seismology
--- is presently the main organizational body
studying earthquakes in the Philippines.

Executive Order 984 --- transferred the National

Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration (PAGASA) to PHILVOLCS in 1984
thus integrating seismological studies with
volcanology under one institute of the Department of
Science and technology
PRESENTATION 2

SEISMIC DESIGN ANALYSIS

BASIC STATIC FORCE PROCEDURE

1. PRELIMINARY DATAS NEEDED

-- Define Occupancy Category
-- Assign Seismic Importance Factor (Table 208-1)
-- Define Soil profile type from geotechnical data
(Table 208-2)
-- Determine seismic zone (Figure 208-1)
-- Assign zone factor Z (Table 208-3)
For zone factor Z
-- Assign near source factors (for seismic zone 4)
* Na from table 208-4
* Nv from table 208-5
-- Assign seismic response coefficients
* Ca from table 208-7
* Cv from table 208-8
-- Seismic source types are defined in table 208-6. The
location & type of seismic sources to be used for
design shall be established based on approved
geological data such as those in figure 208-2A to 2E
-- Define structural configuration in accordance with Sec.
208.4.5
-- Classify structural system in accordance with
Sec.208.4.6
-- Assign numerical coefficient, R from table 208-11

2. DETERMINE THE DESIGN BASE SHEAR

NSCP 2001 ed.
NSCP 1992 ed.
3. DETERMINE THE LATERAL FORCE DISTRIBUTION
PER LEVEL
PROBLEM:
Using the static procedure, determine the seismic
lateral force for each level of the building and the
base shear of the structure given below using
a) NSCP 2001 ed.
b) NSCP 1992 ed.
DATA:
Location: Metro Manila within 5 km from an active
fault
Occupancy: Office, Standard
Soil