Principles of Teaching 1 (2nd Copy)
Principles of Teaching 1 (2nd Copy)
Principles of Teaching 1 (2nd Copy)
TEACHING
WHAT IS TEACHING
a process of interacting
Stands for pedagogy, training and
nurturing
The process of engaging students in
activities that will enable them to
acquire the knowledge, skills, as well as
wothwhile values and attitudes.
An aggregate of organized strategies
and activities aimed at inducing
learning
Overall cluster of activities associated
with a teacher, and including explaining,
questioning, demonstrating and
motivating.
A system of activities whereby all
teachers' instructional tasks enable the
students to learn.
Is both science and art; SCIENCE as it is
based on psychological research that
identifies “cause and effect
relationship” between teaching and
learning; ART, as it shows how those
relationships are implemented in
successful and artistic teaching.
Is the greatest of the arts because the
medium is the human mind and spirit.
Involves values, experiences,
insights, imagination and
appreciation- - - the “staff” that can
not be easily observed and
measured (Greene)
Involves the interplay among such
factors as the teacher, the learner,
the teaching content and strategies
as this diagram shows:
THE TEACHER
A key factor in any teaching – learning process.
APPROACH
STRATEGY
METHOD
TECHNIQUE
TECHNIQUE – the personal art and style of the teacher in carrying
out the procedures of teaching.
- the teacher’s unique way, style or act of executing the stages
of a method.
METHOD – synonymous to procedure
- the procedure employed to accomplish lesson objectives.
- a series of related and progressive acts performed by a
teacher and pupils to achieve the desired objectives of the lesson.
- the established way or procedure of guiding the mental
processes in mastering the subject matter.
- refers to a procedure employed to accomplish the lesson
objective.
- a well – planned step – by – step procedure that is directed
towards a desired learning outcomes.
STRATEGY – an over – all or general design on how the lesson will be
executed or delivered.
- a set of decisions on what learning activities to achieve an
objective
- can be a substitute to methodology
APPROACH – a set of correlative assumptions or viewpoints dealing
with the nature of teaching and learning.
- one’s viewpoint toward teaching.
- procedure that employs a variety of strategies to assess
better understanding and effective learning.
PRINCIPLE – means a general or fundamental law, doctrine or
assumption.
- a primary source or origin.
- rule or code of conduct.
PURPOSES OF METHODS
1. make learning more efficient
2. enable learner to think logically
3. facilitates smooth transition from one activity to another
4. serve as guide in preparing all the needed materials, tasks and
equipments.
5. approximate time to be allotted for each activity to avoid waste
of time and lapses.
6. make planning clear and precise, to prevent confusion,
unnecessary delays and time wastage.
7. help in planning for assessment and evaluation of the lesson.
8. add to a feeling of confidence and security for the teacher and
students.
PRINCIPLES FOR SELECTING METHODS
1. Must be based on sound principles, laws and theories of
learning.
2. Must assist the learners to define their purposes and motive.
3. Must originate from the learners’ past experiences.
4. Must suit individual differences, needs, interests and
developmental maturity.
5. Must bring the learners to the world of diverse learning
experiences.
6. Must stimulate the learners to think critically, analytically and
creatively.
7. Must be challenging
8. Must be flexible.
9. Must be consistent with the requirements of objectives.
10. Must be appropriate with the content.
11. Must give to way to varied students’ participation.
12. Must consider to be undertaken to ensure gainful learning.
DIFFERENT FOLKS,
DIFFERENT STROKES
GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN THE SELECTION
AND USE OF TEACHING STRATEGIES
1. Learning is an active process – actively engage learner in
learning activities to achieve optimum learning of the learners.
What I see, I remember,
What I hear, I forget
What I do, I understand
75% retention rate – is achieved through learning by doing
90 % retention rate – learning by teaching others
2. The more senses that are involve in learning, the more and better
the learning – Humans are intensively visual animals. The eyes
contain nearly 70% of the body’s receptors and send millions of
signals along the optic nerves to the visual processing centers of
the brain.
sight – 75%
hearing – 13%
touch – 6%
taste – 3%
smell – 3%
3. A non – threatening atmosphere enhances learning.
4. Emotion has the power to increase retention and learning.
5. Learning is meaningful when it is connected to students’ everyday
life.
6. Good teaching goes beyond recall of information – teaching should
reach the levels of application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation
to hone our students’ thinking skills.
7. An integrated teaching approach is far more effective than
teaching isolated bits of information.
8. There is no such thing as best teaching method. The best method
is the one that works, the one that yields results.
Factors to consider in the choice of teaching method:
a. Instructional objective
c. The learners
d. Teacher
e. School policies
DIFFERENT
APPROACHES AND
METHODS
A THOUSAND TEACHERS, A
THOUSAND METHODS
A COMPARISON BETWEEN DIRECT AND INDIRECT APPROACHES
DIRECT APPROACH INDIRECT APPROACH
WHEN TO USE:
a. For conveying/disseminating important information which may
not be available to students or which may be needed to be
presented in a particular way.
b. For stimulating interest.
c. For guiding student reading
d. For explaining a difficult text
e. For aiding student to summarize and synthesize discussions
STEPS
1. Planning
a. identifying goals
b. diagnosing student background
c. structuring content
d. preparing advance organizers
2. Implementing
a. Introduction – describing the purpose of the lesson, sharing of
objectives and overview to help students see the organization of
the lesson.
b. Presentation – defining and explaining major ideas.
c. Comprehension Monitoring – determining whether or not
students understand concepts and ideas.
d. Integration – exploring interconnections between important
ideas.
5. Review and Closure – summarizing the lecture
B. DISCUSSION – is an orderly process of face to face group
interaction in which students/pupils exchange ideas about an
issue for the purpose of answering a question, enhancing their
knowledge or understanding or making decision.
- It can be viewed as a bridge between direct instruction and
student – centered instruction.
5 Logical Conditions to Ensure that Exchange is called DISCUSSION
(Bridges, 1960)
1. People must talk to one another
c. Moral development
d. Communication skills
When to Use
For formulating generalization, concept, rule, truth, principle,
formula or definition.
Steps:
1. Preparation – reviewing of old facts, setting of goals, stating of
aims
2. Presentation – presentation of cases and examples.
3. Comparison and Abstraction – deducing common elements among
the cases or samples presented.
4. Stating of Generalization, rule, definition, principle, or formula
based on the common elements deduced from cases presented.
5. Application – applying the generalization or rule learned to other
problems within or beyond the classroom setting.
3. PROBLEM SOLVING
- a purposeful activity aimed at removing difficulty or
perplexity through a process of reasoning.
Features:
1. Allows for students’ active involvement resulting in meaningful
experiences
2. Develops independence and higher level thinking skills.
When to Use:
- for lessons where learners find problems requiring
- for developing higher – level thinking skills
Steps:
1. Recognition and statement of the problem – with teacher’s
guidance and stimulus, the students define or recognize a
problem
2. Statement of Hypothesis – students make temporary
answer/solution to the question or problem
3. Critical Evaluation of Suggested solution – with the teacher’s
guidance, students test hypotheses or data used in solving the
problem, formulate conclusions and summarize their findings.
4. Verification of accepted solutions – checking, verifying and
applying results to other problems.
4. PROJECT METHOD
a purposeful, natural, significant constructive activity needing
both intellectual and physical solutions.
Project may be:
a. Physical or material – such as repairing a radio
b. Learning project – like composing a poem or short story
c. Intellectual or problem project – such as identifying ornamental
plants which can be medicinal
Features:
1. Develops students’ thinking and manipulative skills.
Steps
1. Purposing – determining the nature and goals of the project.
When to Use?
1. For making hypothesis
A. TEAM BUILDING
1. Round robin Each student in turn shares something Expressing ideas or opinions,
with his or her team mates. creation of stories. Getting
acquainted with team mates.
B. CLASS BUILDING
1. Corners Each student moves to a corner of the Seeing other alternative
room representing a teacher – hypothesis, values, problem
determined alternative. Students solving approaches.
discuss within corners, then listen to
and paraphrase ideas from the other
corner.
C. COMMUNICATION BUILDING
1. Numbered The teacher asks a question, students consult Review, checking for
Heads Together to make everyone knows the answer, then knowledge,
one student is called upon to answer comprehension, tutoring
2. Color coded Students memorized facts using a flash card Memorizing facts,
Co – op - cards game. The game is structured so that there is helping, praising
a maximum probability of success at each
step moving from short term to long term
memory. Scoring is based on improvement.
3. Praise Check Students work in pairs of four. Within pairs Practicing skills, helping,
students alternate – one solves a problem praising
while the other coaches. After every two
problems, the pair checks to see if they have
the same answers as the other pair.
E. CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
1. THREE - Step Students interview each other in pairs, first Sharing personal
Interview one way, then the other. Students each share information such as
with the group information they learned in hypotheses, reactions to
the interview. a poem, conclusions from
a unit.
2. Think – Pair Students think to themselves on a topic Generating and revising
Share provided by the teacher; they pair up with hypotheses, inductive
another student to discuss it; they then reasoning, deductive
share their thoughts with the class. reasoning, application.
Participation, involvement.
F. MULTIFUNCTIONAL
1. Roundtable Each student in turn writes one answer as a Assessing prior knowledge,
paper and a pencil are passed around the practicing skills, recalling
group. With simultaneous Roundtable more information, creating
than one pencil and paper are used at once. cooperative art. Team
building, participation of all.
K. INDEPENDENT LEARNING
providing a high level of cognitive and affective development,
independent learning is a kind of instructional process where
students proposes a study project, investigation, research, or
production of something which she or he will carry out almost
independently. The teacher’s role is to stimulate student
participation, advise and counsel on possible projects, grant
approval if appropriate, supervise students and evaluate
completed project.
L. SYNACTICS
- a teaching model designed to increase students’ creativity
through formulating analogies or metaphors. It is built on
assumptions that creativity, even though an essentially emotional
process can be learned and creativity can be fostered through
group activity.
INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES CONTINUUM FROM PASSIVE TO ACTIVE LEARNING
-Lecture
- Demonstration
- Questioning
- Discussion
- Guided Practice
- Independent Practice
- Grouping
- Role Playing
- Simulation
- Reflective Inquiry/
Thinking
LESSON
PLANNING
LESSON PLAN
- is a day to day, step by step approach to learning. It sets forth the
proposal program or the instructional activities for the day.
Types:
a. BRIEF – an outline of teacher’s activities and is usually done by
master teachers
b. SEMI – DETAILED – all activities and teacher’s questions are
listed and usually done by neophyte teachers.
c. DETAILED – all activities, teacher’s questions and students’
expected answers are reflected and usually done by pre – service
teachers.
COMPONENTS OF THE LESSON PLAN
I. OBJECTIVES
- Cognitive
- Psychomotor
- Affective
II. SUBJECT MATTER
- Topics/Concepts
- Values Integrated
- References
- Materials
III. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
A. Preparatory Activities
1. Drill – activity that will enable the students to automatize
response to pre – requisite skill of the new lesson.
2. Review – activity that will refresh or renew previously
taught material.
3. Introduction – an activity that will set the purpose of the
day’s lesson.
4. Motivation – all activities that arouse the interest of the
learners.
2 types:
a. Intrinsic Motivation – sustaining self – interest to
learn.
- maintains self – curiosity and involvement in
the work by using surprise, doubt, novel as
well as familiar things.
b. Extrinsic Motivation – interest that is ignited by an
outward force like awards – monetary or
material things, scholarships, inspiration
from love ones.
B. Developmental Activities
1. Presentation of the Lesson – real life situation or within the
experience of the learners are incorporated.
- teacher uses different activities as a vehicle to translate
the knowledge, values and skills into learning that could
be applied in their lives outside the school.
2. Discussion / Analysis – asking a series of affective or
cognitive questions about the lesson presented.
3. Abstraction / Generalization – the summary of the lesson.
- organizing significant information about the lesson
presented.
- completing graphic organizers like concept map, Venn
Diagram, fish bone, table, matrices and etc.
C. Closure / Application – relates the lesson to other situations in
the forms of:
- dramatization, simulation and play
- story telling
- oral reading
- construction and drawing
- written composition
- singing or reciting a poem
- test
- creative works
- solving problems
IV. Evaluation – determines whether the objectives are met and
achieved
- questioning
- summarizing
- comparing present and previous learning
- assigning work – project, research
- administering short quiz
- portfolios
- rubrics
- journals
V. Assignment
1. An activity done outside the classroom/at home to:
- reinforce or enrich the day’s lesson
- set the materials that students have to bring to school to
implement the next lesson.
2. The activity should help attain the day’s lesson objective. It
should be interesting and differentiated (with provision for
remedial, reinforcement and enrichment activities.)
DIFFERENCE AMONG AIMS, GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
AIMS – are the most general objectives of the Philippine Education
System. They are broad and value – laden statements expressing
philosophical and ethical considerations that:
a. answer the needs and demands of the society especially
children and youth.
b. are formulated by experts as policy – making bodies, panels
and commissions.
c. are societal in nature or in a national level concern.
Example: Prepare students for a democratic citizenship.
GOALS – descriptions of the general objectives of school’s
curricula/courses that are expected to:
a. accomplish and organize learning experiences stressed on a
system – wide basis.
b. represent the entire school program prepared by
a professional associations or any local
educational agencies.
Example: Development of reading skills.
Understanding mathematical concepts.
Appreciation of art works.
OBJECTIVES – are the descriptions of what eventually take place in
the classroom.
a. They should be SMART (specific, measurable, attainable,
realistic, time bound)
b. These are used as a standard way of judging what has been
achieved or not achieved.
c. Their chief functions is to guide the teachers in making
decisions on what to cover, what to emphasize, what
content to select, and what learning experience, activity,
strategy or method best suit a certain learning plan.
d. Have 2 essential components namely behavior and content
but for assessment purposes, the objective should be written with
the following elements:
A – audience or the performer
B – behavior or the action verb specifying the learning
outcome
C – content of the subject matter
C – criterion or the degree of performance considered
sufficient to demonstrate mastery
Example: The student (audience) should distinguish (behavior) all
(criterion) objectives indicating learning outcomes (content) from
a set of objectives having both learning outcomes and learning
activities (condition).
2 types of Objectives:
1. Terminal – an important learning outcome that should be attained
at the end of the instruction.
2. Enroute or enabling – the objective leading to the attainment of
the terminal objective.
SPECIFICATIONS OF OBJECTIVES
- it refers to the process of formulating objectives in a functional
form( i.e. complex to simple). It follows the following steps:
1. State the general unit objectives in terms of expected learning
outcomes (terminal objectives).
Dimensions of Learning Outcomes:
a. Knowledge – recall and remembering of information
essential to a discipline or subject area.
b. Reasoning – student ability to use knowledge to reason and
solve problems.
c. Skills – student ability to demonstrate achievement –
related skills such as reading aloud, interpersonal
interaction, speaking a second language and
performing psychomotor behaviors.
d. Products – student ability to create achievement – related
products such as written report, oral presentations,
projects, artworks.
e. Affective – (attitudes, values and appreciations) – moods
and connections or dispositions to act in a given
manner toward a person, thing, or event and the
sensitive awareness or perception of worth of an object
or event.
2. State terminal learning outcome in measurable learner
performance or product
- avoid terms like KNOW, UNDERSTAND, LEARN, THINK, and
APPRECIATE because they are not observable behaviors.
3. Obtain representative samples of essential and supportive pre-
requisites (enroute or enabling objectives).
Sequencing of Objectives
- the process of ordering or arranging the behavior of the
objectives in the same content in hierarchical order from simplest
to most complex.
The designers of objectives in many forms were finalized based
from:
1. TYLER – interprets philosophical and psychological concerns of
instructional objectives.
2. Gronlunds – distinguishes objectives between general and
specific outcomes.
3. Mager – relies on three major characteristics as behavioral,
conditional and with proficiency level in the formulation of
objectives.
4. Gagne – just as precise as Mager – defines types of learning
objectives as measurable and observable.
5. Bloom and his associates (1956) – developed the taxonomy of
cognitive objectives
6. Krathwohl and Associates (1964) – developed the taxonomy of
affective objectives.
7. Simpson – developed the taxonomy of psychomotor objectives
Domains and Taxonomy of Instructional Objectives
Taxonomy – classification systems of learning heirarchy.
LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL EXAMPLE OF
TERMS OBJECTIVES
A. Cognitive – refers to the mental or thought complexity
1. Knowledge Recalling and remembering Name, match, list, Identify equal
previously learned material identify, recall, fractions.
including specific facts, events, define, label,
persons , dates, methods, select, state
procedures concepts, principles
and theories
2. Understanding and grasping the Explain, convert, Change fractions to
Comprehensi meaning of something, estimate, lower/higher term
on including translation from one describe,
symbolic form to another interpret,
interpretation, explanation, illustrate, infer,
prediction, inferences, restating, represent
estimation and other uses that
LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL EXAMPLE OF
TERMS OBJECTIVES
3. Application Using abstract ideas, rules Demonstrate, use, Add two to four
or generalized methods in apply, solve, prepare, similar fractions.
novel and concrete implement, carry
situations. out, construct, show
4. Analysis Breaking down a Differentiate, Analyzed word
communication into a distinguish, problems involving
constituent parts or discriminate, relate, addition and
elements and understanding compare, contrast, subtraction of similar
the relationship among classify, categorize fractions
different elements
5. Synthesis Arranging and combining Combine, assemble, Solve non – routine
elements and parts into suggest, integrate, problems involving
novel patterns or structures create, plan, propose, fractions
Design, conclude,
synthesize,
summarize
6. Evaluation Judging the quality worth, Appraise, critique, Judge the
or value of something judge, weigh, reasonableness of a
according to established evaluate, verify, given solution to a
criteria confirm, defend, word problem
decide, justify
LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL EXAMPLE OF
TERMS OBJECTIVES
B. Affective Domain – reflects underlying emotions, feelings or values
1. Develops an awareness , Observe, listen, Pay attention to the
Receiving/atte shows willingness to attend, look, watch, traits of a well – kept
nding receive, shows controlled house
or selected attention,
2. Responding Shows willingness to Share, follow, Keep the house clean
respond and finds some respond, comply, and orderly as told.
initial level of satisfaction conform, react
in responding
3. Valuing Shows the object, person or Admire, support, Formulate a cleaning
situation has worth. praise, assist, schedule in the house
Something is perceived as cooperate, indicating tasks that
holding appositive value, a participate, conserve, need cleaning daily,
commitment is made. promote weekly, and
occasionally.
4. Organization Brings together a complex Propose, resolve, Keep the house clean
set of values and organizes balance, integrate, and orderly everyday
them in an ordered organize
relationship that is
harmonious and internally
consistent.
LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL EXAMPLE OF
TERMS OBJECTIVES
5.Characterization Organized system of Advocate, approve, Maintain the
values becomes a justify, influence, cleanliness and
person’s like outlook commit, assert, orderliness of one’s
and the basis for a maintain house and other
philosophy of life places at all times
c. Psychomotor – observable reflexive behavior, which involves cognitive and affective
components
1. Perception Uses the sense organ Monitor, observe, Observe how to
to obtain cues that listen, watch position the fingers
guide motor activity; in the keyboard
(awareness), through
cue selection to
translation
2. Set Readiness to take a Show, prepare, set- Tell the order of the
particular action, up, ready alphabet in the
includes mental, keyboard
physical, and
emotional set.
Perception is an
important
prerequisite.
LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL EXAMPLE OF
TERMS OBJECTIVES
3. Guided Concerned with the early stages Imitate, follow, Practice proper
Response of learning a complex skill. copy, install, position in the
Includes imitation, trial and repeat, practice keyboard.
error.
4. Mechanism Concerned with the habitual Demonstrate, Type at least 60
responses that can be manipulate, words per minute
performed with some collect, draw, use, using the correct
confidence and proficiency. Less sketch, type, position of the
complex write fingers.
5. Skillfully performs acts that Operate, build, Execute the print
Complex/over require complex movement construct, drive, formatting
t response patterns, like the highly troubleshoot operations.
coordinated motor activities.
Proficiency indicated by quick,
smooth and accurate
performance, requiring a
minimum of effort.
6. Adaptation Concern with skills so well Change, modify, Use the desktop
learned that they are modified repair, adjust, publishing
to fit special requirement or to integrate applications in
meet problem situations. creating income
LEVEL DESCRIPTION BEHAVIORAL EXAMPLE OF
TERMS OBJECTIVES
7. Origination Creates new Create, originate, Creates one’s own
movement patterns produce, develop, web page.
to fit a particular compose
situation or problem
HIGHEST
EVALUATION
SYNTHESIS
ANALYSIS
APPLICATION
COMPREHENSION
KNOWLEDGE LOWEST
Levels of Affective Domain
HIGHEST
CHARACTERIZING
ORGANIZING
VALUING
RESPONDING
RECEIVING
LOWEST
Levels of Psychomotor Domain
ORIGINATION HIGHEST
ADAPTATION
COMPLEX OVERT RESPONSE
MECHANISM
GUIDED RESPONSE
SET
PERCEPTION LOWEST
Art of Questioning –
Questioning – key technique in teaching
- used for a variety of purposes.
Purposes of Questions:
1. Arouse interest and curiosity
Types of Questions:
1. According to thinking process involved:
a. interview
b. library research
c. internet research
d. reading
e. lecture
f. inviting resource speakers
g. field trip
h. experiment
i. panel discussion
j. hands – on – learning
k. case study
2. For Organizing and Summarizing:
a. using graphic organizer
b. jingles, raps, song
c. verses
d. acrostic
e. power point presentation
3. For Application/Creative Activities
a. solving real world problems
b. performances and demonstrations
c. authentic projects
d. portfolios of students’ best work or work in progress
e. letters to the editor
f. power point presentation
g. brochures
h. writing and performing a song, rap or a musical
i. news report for local news program
j. television talk shows
k. mock debates and mock trials
l. mock job interviews
m. personal narratives
n. cartoons and comic strips
o. organizing a symposium
C. Concluding Activities:
a. finish and review the KWL
b. passport to leave
c. journal writing at the end of the period
d. Preview coming attractions
e. 3/2/1 countdown – 3 – facts I learned today, 2 – ways I will use
the information/skills I learned today, 1 – question I have
f. using analogies
g. completing unfinished sentences
h. synthesize or summarize the lesson
SELECTION AND
USE OF
INSTRUCTIONAL
MATERIALS
PRINCIPLES
1. All instructional materials are aids of instructions. They do not
replace the teacher.
2. Choose the instructional materials that best suits your
instructional objectives.
3. If possible, use a variety of tools.
4. Check out your instructional material before class starts to be
sure it is working well.
5. For results, abide by the general utilization guide on the use of
media which includes:
a. learn how to use the instructional material.
b. prepare introductory remarks, questions or initial comments
you may need.
c. provide a conducive environment
d. explain the objectives of the lesson
e. stressed what to be watched or listened to carefully
f. state what they are expected to do with the information they will
learn
g. prepare measure that can assess students’ experiences on the
use of the material based on the objectives.
VARIOUS FORMS OF MEDIA
1. AUDIO RECORDINGS – include tapes, recordings, and compact
discs used by teachers in connection with speech rehearsals,
drama, musical presentations, and radio and television
broadcasting
2. OVERHEAD TRANSPARANCY OR OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (OHP)