Chapter 1 - Matter and Stoichiometry
Chapter 1 - Matter and Stoichiometry
Chapter 1 - Matter and Stoichiometry
CHM092
CHAPTER 1
MATTER AND
STOICHIOMETRY
1
Main Topics
1.1 Matter
1.2 Naming of Compounds
1.3 Stoichiometry
1.4 Concentrations of Solutions
2
1.1 Matter
1.1.1 Matter
1.1.2 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1.1.2 Atom/Elements
1.1.3 Molecules
1.1.4 Ions
3
Matter
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.
Microscopic
Macroscopic
A combination of scanning transmission electron microscopy and atomic-
resolution spectroscopic techniques are able to capture a single atom of
material
4
Classifications of Matter
Elements and compounds.
An element is a substance that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by chemical
means.
114 elements have been identified
82 elements occur naturally on Earth
32 elements have been created by scientists
technetium, americium, seaborgium
5
Classifications of Matter
Substances and mixtures.
A substance is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties.
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances
in which the substances retain their distinct identities.
Homogenous mixture – composition of the
mixture is the same throughout
liquid nitrogen
cement,
iron filings in sand
6
The Three-States of Matter
gas
This set aside false idea promoted by Aristotle 2000 years earlier that matter
was continuous, and reaffirmed Democritus’s early “atomic model.”
9
Atoms
All atoms are made up of subatomic particles
which are identical in all atoms
Consists of a nucleus surrounded by electron
cloud
Nucleus of an atom are called nucleons
Nucleons consists of protons and neutrons
10
Atomic Structure
11
Atomic Structure
Protons and neutrons vibrate, but are basically
motionless.
The nucleus is very tiny compared to the atom as
a whole, taking up less than 1% of the total
volume
Electrons are located relatively far from the
nucleus in “energy levels” where they move
randomly at very high speeds creating “shells”
These “electron clouds” make up more than 99%
of the volume of an atom, but almost none of the
mass.
12
Atomic Structure
15
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei
16
Atomic Structure
Nucleon Number or Mass Number
17
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same
number of protons
Isotopes of an element have different masses
Isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
MassIsotopes are identified by their mass numbers, which is
number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
the sum of all the protons and neutrons in the nucleus
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
All isotopes of an element are chemically identical
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
undergo the exact samenuclei chemical reactions
Isotopes have different physical properties such as melting
point, boiling point, density and rate of diffusion
18
Isotopes
Isotopes and Isotopic Abundance
A few elements such as fluorine and aluminium exists
only in one isotope
Fluorine-19 and Aluminium-27 (100% relative abundance)
Atomic
number (Z) = number of
the percentage ofprotons in nucleus
an element that is one isotope is called the
isotope’s
Mass number natural
(A) = number of abundance
protons + number of neutrons
Most elements exists (Z)
= atomic number as+ number
mixtures of two or more naturally
of neutrons
occurring isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
there are two isotopes of chlorine
nuclei found in nature, one that has a
mass of about 35 amu (75.5%) and the other about 37 amu
(24.5%)
The abundance of each isotope in the mixture is called its
isotopic abundance
The observed mass is a weighted average of the weights
of all the naturally occurring atoms
Thus, the atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 amu
19
Isotopes
Isotope Uranium
• Atomic number
Number of protons= 92
Z
• Mass Number
Protons + neutrons = 235
whole number
A
• Abundance = relative
amount found in a sample
20
Elements
Most elements have single atoms as their constituent
particles
The atoms may be physically attracted to each other, but
are not chemically bonded together
22
Molecules
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more
atoms (same atoms or different atom) in a specific
geometrical arrangement held together by
chemical forces.
attachments are called bonds
attachments come in different strengths
come in different shapes and patterns
23
Molecules
Elements/atoms combine together to make an almost
limitless number of compounds
The properties of the compound are totally different from
the constituent elements
Property Sodium + Chlorine Sodium Chloride
Melting point 97.8°C -101°C 801°C
Boiling point 881.4°C -34°C 1413°C
Color Silvery Yellow-green Colorless (white)
Density 0.97 g/cm3 0.0032 g/cm3 2.16 g/cm3
Behavior in water Reacts Dissolves slightly Dissolves freely
24
Reacting Atoms
When elements undergo chemical reactions, the reacting
atoms do not turn into other elements
Statement 4 of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
This requires that all the atoms present when you start the
reaction will still be there after the reaction
Because the number of protons determines the kind of
element, the number of protons in the atom does not
change in a chemical reaction
However, many reactions involve transferring electrons
from one atom to another
25
Charged Atoms
28
Ion Charge
29
Compound
a substance composed of two or more elements which are
chemically combined (electrovalent or covalent)
30
Compound
Ionic Compounds
Compounds of metals with nonmetals are made of ions
metal atoms form cations, nonmetal atoms form anions
Each cation is surrounded by anions and vice-versa
No individual molecule units, instead they have a 3-
dimensional array of cations and anions made of formula
units
Propane – contains
individual C3H8
molecules
32
Compound
Ionic Compounds Contains polyatomic Ions
Compound contains polyatomic ions
several atoms attached together by covalent bonds into
one ion
33
Mixture
A group of two or more elements and/or
compounds that are physically intermingled.
34
Checkpoint 1
The scenes below represent an atomic-scale view of
substance A undergoing two different changes. Decide
whether each scene shows a physical or a chemical change.
35
Checkpoint 2
Argon, Ar
Barium chloride, BaCl2
Phosphorus, P4
Acetone, C3H6O
Calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2
Nikel, Ni
36
Checkpoint 3
The following scenes represent an atomic-scale view of
three samples of matter. Describe each sample as an
element, compound, or mixture.
37
1.2 Naming of Chemical
Compounds
1.2.1 Naming Binary Ionic Compound for
Metals with Invariant Charge
1.2.2 Naming Binary Ionic Compound for
Metals with Variable Charges
1.2.3 Naming Compound Containing
Polyatomic Ions
1.2.4 Acid Nomenclature
1.2.5 Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
of Two Nonmetals
1.2.6 Naming Hydrated Compounds
1.2.7 Basic Nomeclature
38
Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
for Metals with Invariant Charge
Consists of metal (cation) and nonmetal (anion)
Metal listed first and followed by nonmmetal in formula
1. name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second
2. cation name should use the metal name itself
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide
39
Naming Metal Cations (Invariant Charge)
40
Naming Monatomic Nonmetal Anion
Determine the charge from position on the Periodic Table
To name anion, change ending on the element name to –
ide
41
Example 1: Naming Binary Ionic with Invariant
Charge Metal CsF
1. Identify cation and anion
Cs = Cs+ because it is Group 1A
F = F− because it is Group 7A
2. Name the cation
Cs+ = cesium
3. Name the anion
F− = fluoride
4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name
Cesium fluoride
42
Checkpoint 4
Name the ionic compound formed from each of the
following pairs of elements:
(a) Bromine and strontium
(b) Rubidium and sulfur
(c) Beryllium and oxygen
43
Checkpoint 5
Name the ionic compound from each of the following
chemical formulas:
(a) K3N
(b) ScCl3
(c) Al2S3
(d) LiH
44
Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
for Metals with Variable Charge
Consists of metal (cation) and nonmetal anion
Metal listed first in formula and name
1. name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second
2. metal cation name is the metal name followed by a Roman numeral
in parentheses to indicate its charge
determine charge from anion charge
common ions Table 3.4
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide
45
Naming Metal Cations (Variable Charges)
• Metals with variable
Charges
metals whose ions
can have more than
one possible charge
determine charge
by charge on anion
and cation
name = metal name
with Roman
numeral charge in
parentheses
46
Example 2: Naming binary ionic with variable
charge metal CuF2
1. Identify the cation and anion
F = F− because it is Group 7
Cu = Cu2+ to balance the two (−) charges from 2 F−
2. Name the cation
Cu2+ = copper(II)
3. Name the anion
F− = fluoride
4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name
copper(II) fluoride
47
Checkpoint 6
Name the ionic compound formed from each of the
following pairs of elements:
(a) Bromine and chromium (II)
(b) Cobalt (III) and sulfur
(c) Fluorine and copper (II)
(d) Tin (IV) and oxygen
48
Checkpoint 7
Name the ionic compound from each of the following
chemical formulas:
a) VI3
b) MnS2
c) PbCl4
d) Hg2Br2
49
Rules for Naming Compounds Containing
Polyatomic Ions
Polyatomic ions are single ions that contain more than one
atom
Often identified by parentheses around ion in formula
Name and charge of polyatomic ion do not change
Name any ionic compound by naming cation first and then
anion
50
Polyatomic Cations and Anions
Formula Name Formula Name
Common Cations
NH4+ ammonium H 3 O+ hydronium
CH3NH3+ metylammonium NH3+OH hydroxylammonium
Common Anions
CH3COO- acetate CO32- carbonate
CN- cyanide HCO3- bicarbonate
OH- hydroxide CrO42- chromate
ClO- hypochlorite Cr2O72- dichromate
ClO2- chlorite O22- peroxide
ClO3- chlorate PO43- phosphate
NO2- nitrite HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
NO3- nitrate SO32- sulfite
MnO4- permanganate SO42- sulfate
51
Example 3: Naming ionic compounds containing
an invariant charge metal with polyatomic ion
Na2SO4
1. Identify the ions
Na = Na+ because in Group 1A
SO4 = SO42− a polyatomic ion
2. Name the cation
Na+ = sodium, metal with invariant charge
3. Name the anion
SO42− = sulfate
4. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
sodium sulfate
52
Example 4: Naming ionic compounds containing
variable charges metal with polyatomic ion
Fe(NO3)3
1. Identify the ions
NO3 = NO3− a polyatomic ion
Fe = Fe3+ to balance the charge of the 3 NO3−
2. Name the cation
Fe3+ = iron(III), metal with variable charge
3. Name the anion
NO3− = nitrate
4. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
iron(III) nitrate
53
Example 5: Naming compounds containing
polyatomic cation and polyatomic anion
(NH4)2CO3
1. Identify the cation
NH4+ = ammonium
2. Identify the anion
CO32− = carbonate
3. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
Ammonium carbonate
54
Checkpoint 8
Name the polyatomic ion compound
(a) Ba(NO3)2
(b) Cu(CN)2
(c) CH3NH3Br
55
Periodic Pattern of Polyatomic Ions
-ate groups
56
Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
When there are two oxyanions involving the same element:
– The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
• NO2− : nitrite; SO32− : sulfite
– The one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
• NO3− : nitrate; SO42− sulfate
If the polyatomic ion have charge more than -1 for
example CO32-, PO43- or SO42- , add hydrogen in front of
ion then use hydrogen- prefix before name and neutral 1
to the charge
• CO32− = carbonate HCO3− = hydrogen carbonate
• SO42- = sulfate HSO4- = hydrogen sulfate
• PO43- = phosphate HPO42- = hydrogen phosphate
If add another one hydrogen
• PO43- = phosphate H2PO4- = Dihydrogen phosphate
57
Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
• The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite.
– ClO2− : chlorite
• The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate.
– ClO3− : chlorate
• The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo - and
ends in -ite.
– ClO− : hypochlorite
• The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and
ends in -ate.
– ClO4− : perchlorate
58
Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ate, change
the ending to -ic acid.
– HClO3: chloric acid
– HClO4: perchloric acid
59
Acid Nomenclature
60
Acid Nomenclature
61
Checkpoint 9
Name the following oxoacid and oxoanion
(a) HBrO
(b) H2AsO4-
(c) HNO2
(d) IO4-
(e) CrO42-
(f) H2Cr2O7
62
Rules for Naming of Binary Molecular
Compounds of Two Nonmetals
1. Write name of first element in formula
a) element furthest left and down on the Periodic Table
b) use the full name of the element
2. Writes name the second element in the formula with an -
ide suffix
a) as if it were an anion, however, remember these compounds do
not contain ions!
3. Use a prefix in front of each name to indicate the number
of atoms
a) Never use the prefix mono- on the first element
63
Subscript – Prefixes
• 1 = mono- • 6 = hexa-
not used on first nonmetal
• 2 = di- • 7 = hepta-
• 3 = tri- • 8 = octa-
• 4 = tetra- • 9 = nona-
• 5 = penta- • 10 = deca-
65
Checkpoint 10
Name the following molecular compound or write the
chemical formulas for the following molecular
compound
(a) P2O4
(b) I2F7
(c) Diboron trioxide
(d) Bromine pentachloride
66
Rules for Naming Hydrated Compounds
• Hydrates are ionic compounds
containing a specific number of waters
for each formula unit
• Water of hydration often “driven off” by
heating
• In formula, attached waters follow ∙
CoCl2∙6H2O
• In name attached waters indicated by
prefix+hydrate after name of ionic
compound
CoCl2∙6H2O = cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
CaSO4∙½H2O = calcium sulfate hemihydrate
67
CoCl2
CoCl2•6H2O
CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4
68
Checkpoint 11
Name the following compound or write the chemical
formula
(a) BaCl2.2H2O
(b) LiCl.H2O
(c) Sr(NO3)2.4H2O
(d) MgSO4.7H2O
69
Basic Nomenclature
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.
Variant
Cu(OH)2 Copper (II) hydroxide
charge
71
1.3 Stoichiometry
1.3.1 Relative Atomic Mass
1.3.2 The Mole Concept and Avogadro
Constant
1.3.3 Molar Mass
1.3.4 Molar Volume of Gases
1.3.5 Percent Composition
1.3.6 Chemical Formula
1.3.7 Balanced Chemical Equations
1.3.8 Stoichiometric Calculations (Amount
of Reactant and Product)
1.3.9 Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and
Actual Yield
72
Relative Atomic Mass and Relative
Molecular Mass
One atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 the mass of one
atom of the carbon-12 isotope.
The mass of single C-12 atom is 1.992 x 10-23 g. The
number of atoms C in one mole is exactly 6.022 X 1023
The relative atomic masses of all elements are found by
comparing the mass of one atom of element with the mass of
C-12 atom
The relative atomic mass of an element is defined as the
ratio of the mass of one atom of the element to 1/12 of the
mass of a C-12 atom.
Mass of one atom of the element
Relative atomic mass = 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12
74
Determining Relative Atomic Mass from
Isotopic Abundance
Elements that do not have isotopes (e.g; Fluorine-19)
relative atomic mass is the same as the relative isotopic mass
75
Example 7: If copper is 69.17% Cu-63 with a
mass of 62.9396 amu and the rest Cu-65 with a
mass of 64.9278 amu, find the atomic mass of
copper
76
Checkpoint 13
1. There are two isotopes of Gallium:
Ga-69 with mass 68.9256 amu and abundance of 60.11%; and
Ga-71 with mass 70.9247 amu and abundance of 39.89%.
Calculate the atomic mass of gallium.
78
Mole Concept and Avogadro Constant
Number of Atoms and Molecules
1 mol of copper, Cu contains 6.022 x 1023 of Cu atoms.
1 mol of water , H2O contains 6.022 x 1023 of H2O
molecules.
1 mol of MgCl2 crystal contains 6.022 x 1023 of MgCl2 formula
units.
The following relationships supply the conversion factors for the
conversions among mass in grams, amount in moles, and number of
elementary units,
Mass (gram) of substance
Mol substance = molar mass of substance (g mol-1)
1 mole 1 mole
sulfur carbon
32.06 g 12.01 g
80
Example 8 : Calculate the number of atoms in
2.45 mol of copper
Given: 2.45 mol Cu
Find:
atoms Cu
Conceptual Plan: mol Cu atoms Cu
Relationships:
1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
Solution:
Check: because atoms are small, the large number of atoms makes
sense
81
Example 9 : How many copper atoms are in a
penny weighing 3.10 g?
Given: 3.10 g Cu
Find: atoms Cu
Conceptual Plan:
g Cu mol Cu atoms Cu
Relationships:
Check: because the given amount is much less than 1 mol Cu, the
number makes sense
82
Example 10 : A silver ring contains 1.1 x 1022
silver atoms. How many moles of silver are in
the ring?
Given: 1.1 x 1022 atoms Ag
Find: moles Ag
Conceptual Plan:
atoms Ag mol Ag
Relationships:
1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms
Solution:
Check: because the number of atoms given is less than Avogadro’s number,
the answer makes sense
83
Checkpoint 14
84
Molar Mass
The molar mass (M) is the mass in grams of one mole of its
entities (atoms, molecules or formula units). The unit for
molar mass is g mol-1
For monatomic elements, the molar mass is the same as
the atomic mass in grams per mole. The atomic mass is
simply read from the Periodic Table.
The molar mass of Ne = 20.18 g/mol.
86
Interconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of
Chemical Entities
no. of grams
Mass (g) = no. of moles x g
1 mol
1 mol
No. of moles = mass (g) x M
no. of grams
6.022x1023 entities
No. of entities = no. of moles x
1 mol
1 mol
No. of moles = no. of entities x
6.022x1023 entities
87
Mass-mole-number Amount-mass-number
relationships for relationships for
elements. compounds.
88
Example 11: Find the number of CO2 molecules
in 10.8 g of dry ice
Given: 10.8 g CO2
Find: molecules CO2
Relationships:
Check: because the given amount is much less than 1 mol CO2, the
number makes sense
89
Example 12 — How many formula units are in
50.0 g of PbO2? (PbO2 = 239.2)
Given: 50.0 g PbO2
Find: formula units PbO2
Conceptual Plan:
g PbO2 mol PbO2 units PbO2
Relationships:
Solution:
Check: because the given amount is less than 1 mol PbO2, the
number makes sense
90
Example 13 — What is the mass of 4.78 x 1024
NO2 molecules?
Given: 4.78 x 1024 NO2 molecules
Find: g NO2
Conceptual Plan:
molecules mol NO2 g NO2
Relationships:
Solution:
92
Checkpoint 16
Hemoglobin C2952H4664N812O832S8Fe4 is the oxygen carrier in
blood
(a) Calculate its molar mass
(b) An average adult has about 5.2 L of blood. Every
millimeter of blood has approximately 5.0 x 109
erythrocytes (red blood cells), and every erythrocytes has
2.8 x 108 hemoglobin molecules. Calculate the mass of
hemoglobin molecules in grams in an average adult.
93
Molar Volume of Gases
The elements exist in gas state, the volume occupied by one
mole of any gas is called the molar volume
At s.t.p (standard temperature and pressure), the molar gas volume
is 22.4 dm3. The condition for s.t.p are 0oC and 1 atm pressure.
At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p) (20oC and 1 atm pressure)
the molar gas volume is 24dm3
94
Example 14 – The decomposition of KClO3
produced 48 dm3 of oxygen gas. How many
moles of oxygen gas are there and calculate the
mass of oxygen gas.
Volume of gas (dm3)
Number of moles of O2 =
22.4 dm3 at s.t.p
48 dm3
= 2.14 mol
96
Percent Composition
Mass percent can also be used to calculate the mass of a
particular element in any mass of a compound.
Compound: XaYb
97
Percent Composition
Percent composition of an element in a compound =
n x molar mass of element
x 100%
molar mass of compound
Given: C2Cl4F2
Find:
% Cl by mass
Conceptual Plan:
Relationships:
Solution:
100
Example 16 : Find the mass of table salt
containing 2.4 g of Na
Relationships:
100 g NaCl : 39 g Na
Solution:
Relationships:
103
Example 18 : Find the mass of sodium in 6.2 g of
NaCl
(Na = 22.99; Cl = 35.45)
Given: 6.2 g NaCl
Find: g Na
Conceptual Plan: g NaCl mol NaCl mol Na g Na
Relationships:
1 mol NaCl = 58.44 g, 1 mol Na = 22.99 g,
1 mol Na : 1 mol NaCl
Solution:
Check: because the amount of Na is less than the amount of NaCl, the answer
makes sense
104
Checkpoint 18
1. A mixture of NaBr and Na2SO4 contains 29.96 % Na by
mass. Calculate the percent by mass of each compound in
the mixture
2. A mixture of CUSO4.5H2O and MgSO4.7H2O is heated until
all the water is lost. If 5.020g of mixture gives 2.988g of the
anhydrous salts, what is the percent by mass of
CuSO4.5H2O.
105
Checkpoint 19
1. Myoglobin stores oxygen for metabolic processes in
muscle. Chemical analysis shows that it contains 0.34%
Fe by mass. What is the molar mass of myoglobin?
(There is one Fe atom per molecule).
2. The aluminium sulfate hydrate [Al2(SO4)3.xH2O] contains
8.10 % Al by mass. Calculate x, that is the number of
water molecules associated with each Al2(SO4)3 unit.
3. An oxybromate compound KBrOx, where x is unknown, is
analyzed and found to contain 52.92% Br. What is the
value of x?
106
Chemical Formulas
Formulas Describe Compounds
107
Chemical Formulas
Representing Compounds with Chemical Formula
108
Chemical Formulas
109
Chemical Formulas
Types of Formula: Empirical Formula
110
Chemical Formulas
111
Chemical Formulas
Types of Formula: Structural Formula
A structural formula uses lines to represent covalent bonds
and shows how atoms in a molecule are connected or
bonded to each other it does not directly describe the 3-
dimensional shape, but an experienced chemist can make a
good guess at it each line describes the number of electrons
shared by the bonded atoms
single line = two shared electrons, a single covalent bond
double line = four shared electrons, a double covalent bond
triple line ≡ six shared electrons, a triple covalent bond
112
Chemical Formulas
Example 19 : Structural Formula
113
Chemical Formulas
114
Chemical Formulas
Example 20: Find the empirical formula for each of the
following
The ionic compound that has two aluminum Al2O3
ions for every three oxide ions
CH2O
arabinose, C5H10O5 H
H C
C N C 2H 2N
pyrimidine C C
H N H
CH3O
ethylene glycol
115
Example 21 : Write the molecular formula of
isoflurane,is a common inhalation anesthetic,
from its ball-and-stick model, shown below.
H
F O
C C
F
C
H
F
F
C3H2OF5Cl
Cl
116
Chemical Formulas
Compounds that Contain Ions
If Na+ is combined with S2−, you will need two Na+ ions for
every S2− ion to balance the charges, therefore the formula
must be Na2S
117
Chemical Formulas
Compounds that Contain Ions
The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive nonmetals (blue)
combine to form ionic compounds.
118
Chemical Formulas
Writing the Formula of an Ionic Compound
1. Write the symbol for the metal cation and its charge
2. Write the symbol for the nonmetal anion and its charge
3. Charge (without sign) becomes subscript for other ion
4. Reduce subscripts to smallest whole number ratio
5. Check that the sum of the charges of the cations cancels
the sum of the anions
119
Chemical Formulas
Example 22 : Writing the chemical formula for a binary
ionic compound containing invariant charge metal Ions
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-
1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-
2 x +1 = +2 1 x -2 = -2
Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
120
Chemical Formulas
Example 23: Writing the chemical formula for a binary
ionic compound containing variable charge metal
manganese(IV) sulfide
124
Chemical Formulas
Finding an Empirical Formula
125
Example 26 : Laboratory analysis of aspirin determined
the following mass percent composition as follows:
C = 60.00%, H = 4.48% and O = 35.53%.
Calculate the empirical formula of aspirin.
Solution:
In 100 g of aspirin there are 60.00 g C, 4.48 g H, 35.53 g O
The conceptual plan is
gC mol C
whole empirical
gH mol H mole number formula
ratio ratio
gO mol O
126
Given the molar mass:
1 mol C = 12.01 g; 1 mol H = 1.008 g; 1 mol O = 16.00 g
calculate the moles of each element
Relative atomic
mass 12.01 1.008 16.00
Number of
moles 4.996 4.44 2.220
129
Chemical Formulas
Molecular Formulas
130
Example 27 : Find the molecular formula of
butanedione
Given: emp. form. = C2H3O;
MM = 86.03 g/mol
Find: molecular formula
Solution:
Check:
the molar mass of the calculated formula is in agreement with the
given molar mass
131
Checkpoint 20
Methyl salicylate has a mass percent composition of 63.2% C, 31.6% O
and 5.26% H. The mass of one molecule of the compound is 2.53 x 10-22
g. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of methyl
salicylate.
132
Chemical Formulas
Combustion Analysis
m m
CnHm + (n+ ) O2 = n CO(g) + H O(g)
2 2 2
134
Example 28
Combustion of a 0.8233 g sample of a compound
containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
produced 2.445 g CO2 and 0.6003 g H2O. Determine
the empirical formula of the compound
Solution:
Let the empirical formula to be CxHyOz
Write a conceptual plan
135
Convert : g CO2 mol CO2 mol C
9 H2 O mol H2O 2 mol H
Use the following relationship:
Molar mass of CO2 = 12.01 + (16.00)2 = 44.01 g/mol
Molar mass of H2O = 2(1.008) + 16.00 = 18.02 g/mol
1mol CO2 = 1 mol C; 1mol H2O = 2 mol H
136
Calculate the grams of C and H using molar mass of C and H
137
Mole ratio C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
Divide by the smallest mole
C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
0.00556 0.00556 0.00556
= 10 : 12 : 1
The empirical formula = C10H12O
138
Checkpoint 21
The smell of dirty gym socks is caused by the compound
caproic acid. Combustion of 0.844 g of caproic acid produced
0.784 g of H2O and 1.92 g of CO2. If the molar mass of
caproic acid is 116.2 g/mol, what is the molecular formula of
caproic acid? (Molar mass C = 12.01, H = 1.008, O = 16.00)
139
Checkpoint 22
1. An organic compound was found to contain only C, H, and
Cl. When a 1.50 g sample of compound was completely
combusted in air 3.52g of CO2 was formed. In a separate
experiment the chlorine in a 1.0 g sample of the compound
was converted to 1.27 g of AgCl. Determine the empirical
formula of the compound.
2. Ferrocene, first synthesized in 1951, was the first organic
iron compound with Fe-C bonds. An understanding of the
structure of ferrocene gave rise to new ideas about
chemical bonding and led to the preparation of many
useful compounds, In combustion analysis of ferrocene,
which contains only Fe, C and H, a 0.9437 g of sample
produced 2.233 g of CO2 and 0.457 g of H2O. What is the
empirical formula of ferrocene?
140
Checkpoint 23
1. Lysine, an essential amino acid in the human body,
contains C,H,O and N. In one experiment, the complete
combustion of 2.175 g of lysine gave 3.94 g CO2 and 1.89
g H2O. In a separate experiment, 1.873 g of lysine gave
0.43g g of NH3.
(a) Calculate the empirical formula of lysine.
141
Balanced Chemical Equations
Chemical Equations
• Shorthand way of describing a reaction
• Provides information about the reaction
formulas of reactants and products
states of reactants and products
relative numbers of reactant and product molecules
that are required
can be used to determine weights of reactants used
and products that can be made
142
Balanced Chemical Equations
Chemical Equations
A chemical equation uses formulas to express the identities and
quantities of substances involved in a physical or chemical change.
144
Balanced Chemical Equations
Features of Chemical Equations
Mg + O2 MgO
2Mg + O2 → 2MgO
146
Balanced Chemical Equations
Combustion of Methane
• To show the reaction obeys the Law of Conservation of
Mass the equation must be balanced
we adjust the numbers of molecules so there are equal numbers of
atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
O O O O
H H H H
+ +
C C + +
H H O O O
O H H
1C + 4H + 4O 1C + 4H + 4O
147
Balanced Chemical Equations
Chemical Equations
• CH4 and O2 are the reactants, and CO2 and H2O are the
products
• The (g) after the formulas tells us the state of the
chemical
• The number in front of each substance tells us the
numbers of those molecules in the reaction
– called the coefficients
148
Balanced Chemical Equations
Chemical Equations
149
Balanced Chemical Equations
Symbols Used in Equations
150
Example 29 : Write a balanced equation for the
combustion of butane, C4H10
Write a skeletal equation C4H10(l) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)
152
Example 31 : Acetic acid reacts with the metal
aluminum to make aqueous aluminum acetate
and gaseous hydrogen
acids are always aqueous
metals are solid except for mercury
Al(s) + HC2H3O2(aq) Al(C2H3O2)3(aq) + H2(g)
153
Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Making Pizza
• The number of pizzas you can make depends on the
amount of the ingredients you use
1 crust + 5 oz. tomato sauce + 2 cu cheese 1 pizza
154
Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Chemical Reactions
• Reactions involve chemical changes in matter resulting
in new substances Reactants Products
Combination (2H2 + O2 2H2O) -synthesis
Decomposition (2H2 + O2 2H2O) - electrolysis
Single-displacement (CuSO4 + Zn ZnSO4 + Cu)- substitution
Double-displacement (AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3)-
substitution
Combustion (CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O)
Neutralization (HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O)- Acid-base
• Reactions involve rearrangement and exchange of
atoms to produce new molecules
– elements are not transmuted during a reaction
155
Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Units
156
Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
157
Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Reaction Stoichiometry
159
Example 33 : Estimate the mass of CO2 produced
by the combustion of 3.5 x 1015 g gasoline, C8H18.
Given: 3.4 x 1015 g C8H18
Find: g CO2
Relationships:
1 mol C8H18 = 114.22g, 1 mol CO2 = 44.01g, 2 mol C8H18:16 mol CO2
Solution:
Check:
because 8x moles of CO2 as C8H18, but the molar mass of
C8H18 is 3x CO2, the number makes sense
160
Checkpoint 24
How many moles of carbon dioxide gas can be produced when
35.1g of propane is burned completely in a rich supply of
oxygen?
C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
Checkpoint 25
The reaction between C7H6O3 and C4H6O3 is given by
2 C7H6O3 + C4H6O3 2 C9H8O4 + H2O
a) How many grams of C4H6O3 are required to react
completely with 125g of salicylate acid, C7H6O3.
b) Calculate the mass in grams of aspirin, C9H8O4 formed in
the above reaction, that is, reaction (a).
161
Checkpoint 26
Checkpoint 27
In the preparation of hydrogen chloride by the reaction
NaCl (s) + H2SO4 (l) HCl (g) + NaHSO4 (s)
a) How many grams of sodium chloride and sulfuric acid are
required for the production of 10.0 dm3 of hydrogen
chloride at s.t.p?
162
Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Actual
Yield
Limiting Reactants
• So far we have assumed that reactants are present in the
correct amounts to react completely.
• In reality, one reactant may limit the amount of product
that can form.
• The limiting reactant will be completely used up in the
reaction.
• The reactant that is not limiting is in excess – some of
this reactant will be left over.
163
An ice cream sundae analogy for limiting reactions.
164
Example 34
How many moles of Si3N4 can be made from 1.20 moles
of Si and 1.00 moles of N2 in the reaction 3 Si + 2 N2
Si3N4?
Given: 1.20 mol Si, 1.00 mol N2
Find: mol Si3N4
Conceptual Plan:
mol Si mol Si3N4 Pick least
Limiting
amount
reactant and
Relationships: theoretical
mol N2 mol Si3N4
yield
166
Checkpoint 29
In one experiment x grams of CS2 is mixed with y grams of
NaOH. The reaction is represented by the unbalanced
equation below.
CS2 + NaOH Na2CS3 + Na2CO3 + H2O
167
Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Actual
Yield
Theoretical and Actual Yield
• As we did with the pizzas, in order to determine the
theoretical yield, we should use reaction stoichiometry to
determine the amount of product each of our reactants
could make
• The theoretical yield will always be the least possible
amount of product
– the theoretical yield will always come from the limiting
reactant
• Because of both controllable and uncontrollable factors,
the actual yield of product will always be less than the
theoretical yield
168
Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Actual
Yield
Theoretical and Actual Yield
• Let’s now assume that as we are making pizzas, we burn a
pizza, drop one on the floor, or other uncontrollable events
happen so that we only make two pizzas. The actual
amount of product made in a chemical reaction is called
the actual yield.
169
Example 35 :
When 28.6 kg of C are allowed to react with 88.2 kg of
TiO2 in the reaction below, 42.8 kg of Ti are obtained.
Find the limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and percent
yield.
TiO2 (s) 2 C(s) Ti(s) 2 CO(g)
}
kg
C smallest
amount is
from
limiting
kg reactant
TiO2
smallest
mol Ti
170
Relationship required :
1000 g = 1 kg
Molar Mass TiO2 = 79.87 g/mol
Molar Mass Ti = 47.87 g/mol
Molar Mass C = 12.01 g/mol
1 mole TiO2 : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)
2 mole C : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)
limiting reactant
smallest moles of Ti
171
theoretical yield
173
1.4 Concentrations of Solutions
1.4.1 Solution
1.4.2 Molarity
1.4.3 Dissociation
1.4.4 Dilution
1.4.5 Stoichiometry Road Map
1.4.6 Stoichiometric Solutions
1.4.7 Concentration Expressions
1.4.8 Molality and Mole Fraction
1.4.9 Part Solute in Part Solution
174
Solutions
• Homogeneous mixtures
composition may vary from one sample to another
appears to be one substance, though really contains
multiple materials
• Most homogeneous materials we encounter are
actually solutions
e.g., air and seawater
• Nature has a tendency toward spontaneous
mixing
generally, uniform mixing is more energetically
favorable
175
Solutions
176
Solutions
• Solutions have variable composition
• To describe a solution, you need to describe the
components and their relative amounts
• The terms dilute and concentrated can be used as
qualitative descriptions of the amount of solute in
solution
• Concentration = amount of solute in a given amount of
solution
– occasionally amount of solvent
177
Concentration
• Qualitatively, solutions are often described as dilute or
concentrated
• Dilute solutions have a small amount of solute compared
to solvent
• Concentrated solutions have a large amount of solute
compared to solvent
178
Molarity
• Moles of solute per 1 liter of solution
• Used because it describes how many molecules of solute
in each liter of solution
179
Molarity
Example 35: Preparing 0.5 L of a 0.350 M nickel(II) nitrate
hexahydrate Solution
1 Calculate the mass of solid
180
Example 36 : How would you prepare 250.0 mL of
a 1.00 M solution CuSO45 H2O(MM 249.69)?
Given: 250.0 mL solution
Find: mass CuSO4 5 H2O, g
Conceptual Plan:
g KBr mol KBr
M
Relationships: L sol’n
1 mol KBr = 119.00 g, M = moles/L
Solution:
Check:
because most solutions are between 0 and 18 M, the
answer makes sense
182
Example 38: How many liters of 0.125 M NaOH
contain 0.255 mol NaOH?
Given: 0.125 M NaOH, 0.255 mol NaOH
Find: liters, L
Conceptual Plan:
mol NaOH L sol’n
Relationships:
0.125 mol NaOH = 1 L solution
Solution:
Check:
because each L has only 0.125 mol NaOH, it makes
sense that 0.255 mol should require a little more than 2 L
183
Example 39 : Determine the mass of CaCl2
(MM = 110.98) in 1.75 L of 1.50 M solution
Given: 1.50 M CaCl2, 1.75 L
Find: mass CaCl , g
2
Relationships:
1.50 mol CaCl2 = 1 L solution; 110.98 g CaCl2 = 1 mol
Solution:
Check:
because each L has 1.50 mol CaCl2, it makes sense
that 1.75 L should have almost 3 moles
184
Dissociation
• The molarity of the ionic compound allows you to
determine the molarity of the dissolved ions
• CaCl2(aq) = Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq)
• A 1.0 M CaCl2(aq) solution contains 1.0 moles of CaCl2 in
each liter of solution
– 1 L = 1.0 moles CaCl2, 2 L = 2.0 moles CaCl2
• Because each CaCl2 dissociates to give one Ca2+, a 1.0 M
CaCl2 solution is 1.0 M Ca2+
– 1 L = 1.0 moles Ca2+, 2 L = 2.0 moles Ca2+
• Because each CaCl2 dissociates to give 2 Cl−, a 1.0 M
CaCl2 solution is 2.0 M Cl−
– 1 L = 2.0 moles Cl−, 2 L = 4.0 moles Cl−
185
Dilution
• Often, solutions are stored as concentrated stock
solutions
• To make solutions of lower concentrations from these
stock solutions, more solvent is added
– the amount of solute doesn’t change, just the volume of
solution
moles solute in solution 1 = moles solute in solution 2
• The concentrations and volumes of the stock and new
solutions are inversely proportional
Mconc∙Vconc = Mdil∙Vdil
186
Example 40 : To what volume should you dilute
0.200 L of 15.0 M NaOH to make 3.00 M NaOH?
Given: V1 = 0.200L, M1 = 15.0 M, M2 = 3.00 M
Find: V2, L
Conceptual Plan:
V1, M1, M2 V2
Relationships:
M1V1 = M2V2
Solution:
Check:
because the solution is diluted by a factor of 5, the volume
should increase by a factor of 5, and it does
187
Example 41 : What is the concentration of a solution
prepared by diluting 45.0 mL of 8.25 M HNO3 to 135.0 mL?
Given: V1 = 45.0 mL, M1 = 8.25 M, V2 = 135.0 mL
Find: M2 , L
Conceptual Plan:
V1, M1, V2 M2
Relationships:
M1V1 = M2V2
Solution:
Check:
because the solution is diluted by a factor of 3, the
molarity should decrease by a factor of 3, and it does
188
Checkpoint 31
How would you prepare 200.0 mL of 0.25 M NaCl solution
from a 2.0 M solution?
Checkpoint 32
200.0 mL of 0.25 M NaCl solution , 100.0 mL of 0.20 M NaCl
solution and 300.0 mL of distilled water are mixed in 1000 mL
beaker. What is the final molarity of NaCl solution?
Checkpoint 33
A 200.0 cm3 sample of oxalic acid solution contains 8.584
g of H2C2O4 . 25.0 cm3 of this acid solution is withdrawn
and diluted to 500.0 cm3 by adding water in a 500–ml
volumetric flask. What is the molarity of the final solution?
189
Stoichiometry Road Map
190
Stoichiometric Solution
Example 42
3 Cu + 8 HNO3 3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4 H2O
In an experiment x grams of Cu reacted completely with 40 cm3 of 0.5
M HNO3 solution.
a) Calculate the value of x.
b) How many moles of NO will be formed in the above
reaction ? 191
Stoichiometric Solution
Solution: Conceptual Plan
193
Stoichiometric Solutions
Gas-Formation Reactions
When there are no gaseous reactants, the formation of an
insoluble or slightly soluble gas provides a driving forces for a
type of reaction that we call a gas-formation reaction.
194
Stoichiometric Solutions
Gas-Formation Reactions
Solution :
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)
195
Stoichiometric Solutions
Gravimetric Analysis
197
Checkpoint 35
Checkpoint 36
What volume of 0.150 M KCl is required to completely react
with 0.150 L of 0.175 M Pb(NO3)2 in the reaction
2 KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)?
198
Checkpoint 37
199
Stoichiometric Solutions
Acid-Base Titration
200
Example 45 : How many milimeters (mL) of a
0.610 M NaOH solution are needed to neutralize
20.0 mL of 0.245 M H2SO4 solution?
2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)?
Let Molarity of H2SO4 = Ma, Molarity of NaOH = Mb
Volume of H2SO4 = Va, Volume of NaOH = Vb
Stoichiometry coeffient a, b = 2,1 for H2SO4, NaOH, resp.
Use the relatioship
MaVa = a
MbVb b
0.245 M x 20.0 mL = 1
0.610 M x Vb 2
Vb = 2 x 0.245 M x 20 mL = 16.1 mL
0.610 M
201
Stoichiometric Solutions
Redox Titration
Redox reactions involve the transfer of
electrons,
Cr2O72- Cr3+
Orange yellow green
202
Example 46
A 16.42-mL volume of 0.1327 M KMnO4 solution is
needed to oxidize 25.00 mL of a FeSO4 solution in an
acidic medium. What is the concentration of the FeSO4
solution in molarity? The net ionic equation is
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O
Solution
203
204
Example 47
Iodate (V) ions react with acidified iodide ions as shown
below:
IO-3 + 5I- + 6H+ 3I2 + 3H2O
205
Moles of iodate (V) ions
Then, 0.036 mol I2 will react with 0.036 mol I2 X 2 mol S2O32- = 0.072 mol
1 mol I2
206
Checkpoint 38
43.8 mL of 0.107 M HCl is to neutralize 37.6 mL of Ba(OH)2
solution. What is the molarity of the base?
2 HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) BaCl2(aq) + 2 H2O(aq)
Checkpoint 39
208
Checkpoint 41
209
Checkpoint 42
In one experiment x grams of CS2 is mixed with y grams of
NaOH. The reaction is represented by the unbalanced
equation below.
CS2 + NaOH Na2CS3 + Na2CO3 + H2O
At the end of the reaction, 7.5 g of Na2CO3 is formed while
3.3 g of CS2 is left unreacted in the reaction vessel. All the
NaOH in the vessel is completely consumed.
a) Balance the above equation
b) Calculate the amount of CS2 (x grams) and NaOH (y
grams) added to the reaction vessel at the beginning of the
reaction.
210
Concentrations Expressions
211
Concentrations Expressions
Using Concentrations as
Conversion Factors
Concentrations show the relationship between the amount
of solute and the amount of solvent
212
Concentrations Expressions
Percent Concentration
213
Concentrations Expressions
Mass Percent (% w/w )
214
Example 48 : What volume of 10.5% by mass soda
contains 78.5 g of sugar?
Density of the solution 1.04 g/mL
Given: 78.5 g sugar
Find: volume, mL
Conceptual g solute g sol’n mL sol’n
Plan:
215
Molality and Mole Fraction
Molality
Moles of solute per 1 kilogram of solvent
defined in terms of amount of solvent, not solution
like the others
Does not vary with temperature
because based on masses, not volumes
216
Molality and Mole Fraction
Mole Fraction, XA
The mole fraction is the fraction of the moles of one
component in the total moles of all the components of the
solution
Total of all the mole fractions in a solution = 1
Unitless
The mole percentage is the percentage of the moles of
one component in the total moles of all the components
of the solution
= mole fraction x 100%
217
Example 49
Calculate the molarity and molality of a solution
prepared by mixing 17.2 g of C2H6O2 with 0.500
kg of H2O to make 515 mL of solution? What is
the mol fraction of C2H6O2 in the solution?
Solution: Conceptual Plan:
M
mL sol’n L sol’n
218
0.2771
Molality 0.554 m or 0.554 mol kg1
0.5
0.5 x 1000
Mol H 2 O mol 27.753 mol
18.016
0.2771
Χ C2 H6O2 9.89 x 10 3
28.03
219
Checkpoint 43
A solution is made by dissolving 34.0 g of NH3 in 2.00 x 103
mL of water. Calculate the
a) molality of the solution
b) the mole fraction of NH3 in the solution
(MMNH3 = 17.04 g/mol, dH2O = 1.00 g/mL)
Checkpoint 44
(i) An aqueous solution consists of 6.55% by mass of glucose
(C6H12O6).
(ii) 6.2 M H2SO4(aq)
Calculate
a) Molarity and molality of solution (i)
b) Molality of solution (ii)
c) What is the mole fraction of the solute in both the
solutions.
(MMH2SO4 = 98.08 g/mol, dsol’n = 1.80 g/mL) 220
Checkpoint 45
1. Calculate the mass of solute and mass of solvent (water)
from each prepared solution
221
Parts Solute in Parts Solution
Parts can be measured by mass or volume
Parts are generally measured in same units
by mass in grams, kilogram, lbs, etc.
by volume in mL, L, gallons, etc.
mass and volume combined in grams and mL
Percentage = parts of solute in every 100 parts solution
if a solution is 0.9% by mass, then there are 0.9 grams of solute in
every 100 grams of solution
or 0.9 kg solute in every 100 kg solution
Parts per million = parts of solute in every 1 million parts
solution
if a solution is 36 ppm by volume, then there are 36 mL of solute in
1 million mL of solution
1mg/L (1 mg of arsenic in 1L in drinking water or 1mg/Kg (1 mg of
Ca in 1 Kg of soil)
222
Questions?
Thank You.
223