FOUNDATION CHEMISTRY I

CHM092
CHAPTER 1
MATTER AND
STOICHIOMETRY

1
 Main Topics
1.1 Matter
1.2 Naming of Compounds
1.3 Stoichiometry
1.4 Concentrations of Solutions

2
 1.1 Matter

1.1.1 Matter
1.1.2 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1.1.2 Atom/Elements
1.1.3 Molecules
1.1.4 Ions

3
 Matter
Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.

All matter is made of atoms

Microscopic
Macroscopic
A combination of scanning transmission electron microscopy and atomic-
resolution spectroscopic techniques are able to capture a single atom of
material
4
 Classifications of Matter
Elements and compounds.
An element is a substance that cannot be
separated into simpler substances by chemical
means.
114 elements have been identified
82 elements occur naturally on Earth
32 elements have been created by scientists
technetium, americium, seaborgium

A compound is a substance composed of atoms of two

or more elements chemically united in fixed proportions.
Compounds can only be separated into their pure
components (elements) by chemical means.

5
 Classifications of Matter
Substances and mixtures.
A substance is a form of matter that has a definite
composition and distinct properties.
A mixture is a combination of two or more substances
in which the substances retain their distinct identities.
Homogenous mixture – composition of the
mixture is the same throughout

liquid nitrogen

Heterogeneous mixture – composition is not uniform

throughout

cement,
iron filings in sand

6
 The Three-States of Matter

gas

A solid has a fixed shape and volume. Solids

may be hard or soft, rigid or flexible.

A liquid has a varying shape that conforms to

the shape of the container, but a fixed volume.
A liquid has an upper surface.
liquid solid
A gas has no fixed shape or volume and
therefore does not have a surface. 7
 Change of State

A physical change does not alter the composition or identity

of a substance.

A chemical change alters the composition or identity of the

substance(s) involved.
8
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1808- John Dalton postulated about
atom
1. matter is made up of tiny atoms
2. atoms of the same element are
identical
3. atoms combine in definite ratios
to form compounds.
4. atom is neither created nor
destroyed in chemical reaction

This set aside false idea promoted by Aristotle 2000 years earlier that matter
was continuous, and reaffirmed Democritus’s early “atomic model.”
9
 Atoms
 All atoms are made up of subatomic particles
which are identical in all atoms
 Consists of a nucleus surrounded by electron
cloud
 Nucleus of an atom are called nucleons
 Nucleons consists of protons and neutrons

10
Atomic Structure

11
 Atomic Structure
 Protons and neutrons vibrate, but are basically
motionless.
 The nucleus is very tiny compared to the atom as
a whole, taking up less than 1% of the total
volume
 Electrons are located relatively far from the
nucleus in “energy levels” where they move
randomly at very high speeds creating “shells”
These “electron clouds” make up more than 99%
of the volume of an atom, but almost none of the
mass.

12
 Atomic Structure

Properties of the Three Key Subatomic Particles

Charge Mass

Name Relative Absolute (C)* Relative Absolute (g) Location in

(Symbol) (amu)† Atom

Proton 1+ +1.60218x10-19 1.00727 1.67262x10-24 Nucleus

(p+)

Neutron 0 0 1.00866 1.67493x10-24 Nucleus

(n0)

Electron 1- -1.60218x10-19 0.00054858 9.10939x10-28 Outside

(e-) nucleus

mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e- 13

 Just Imagine!

“If the atom is the Houston Astrodome, then the

nucleus is a marble on the 50-yard line.”
14
 Atomic Structure
Atomic Number or Proton Number
Each element has a unique number of protons in
its nucleus
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
called the(A)atomic
Mass number = number of number (Z)of neutrons
protons + number
the elements are arranged
= atomic number (Z) + numberon the Periodic Table in
of neutrons
order of their atomic numbers
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
Each element has a unique
nuclei name and symbol
symbol either one or two letters
one capital letter or one capital letter and one lowercase
letter

15
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei

16
 Atomic Structure
Nucleon Number or Mass Number

The nucleon number (A) is the total number of

protons and neutrons in the nucleus
Neutrons act as a type of “insulation” between the
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
protons, preventing them from repelling each other.
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei

17
 Isotopes
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same
number of protons
 Isotopes of an element have different masses
 Isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
MassIsotopes are identified by their mass numbers, which is
number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
the sum of all the protons and neutrons in the nucleus
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
 All isotopes of an element are chemically identical
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
undergo the exact samenuclei chemical reactions
 Isotopes have different physical properties such as melting
point, boiling point, density and rate of diffusion

18
 Isotopes
Isotopes and Isotopic Abundance
 A few elements such as fluorine and aluminium exists
only in one isotope
 Fluorine-19 and Aluminium-27 (100% relative abundance)
Atomic 
number (Z) = number of
the percentage ofprotons in nucleus
an element that is one isotope is called the
isotope’s
Mass number natural
(A) = number of abundance
protons + number of neutrons
 Most elements exists (Z)
= atomic number as+ number
mixtures of two or more naturally
of neutrons
occurring isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
 there are two isotopes of chlorine
nuclei found in nature, one that has a
mass of about 35 amu (75.5%) and the other about 37 amu
(24.5%)
 The abundance of each isotope in the mixture is called its
isotopic abundance
 The observed mass is a weighted average of the weights
of all the naturally occurring atoms
 Thus, the atomic mass of chlorine is 35.45 amu
19
 Isotopes
Isotope Uranium

• Atomic number
 Number of protons= 92
 Z

• Mass Number
 Protons + neutrons = 235
 whole number
 A

• Abundance = relative
amount found in a sample

20
 Elements
Most elements have single atoms as their constituent
particles
The atoms may be physically attracted to each other, but
are not chemically bonded together

Model of the face-centered cubic crystal structure of copper showing one

unit cell. Distance between centers of corner atoms is 3.6 angstroms
21
 Molecular Elements
A few elements have molecules as their constituent
particles
The molecules are made of two or more atoms (same
atom) chemically bonded together by covalent bonds

22
 Molecules
A molecule is an aggregate of two or more
atoms (same atoms or different atom) in a specific
geometrical arrangement held together by
chemical forces.
attachments are called bonds
attachments come in different strengths
come in different shapes and patterns

23
 Molecules
Elements/atoms combine together to make an almost
limitless number of compounds
The properties of the compound are totally different from
the constituent elements
Property Sodium + Chlorine Sodium Chloride
Melting point 97.8°C -101°C 801°C
Boiling point 881.4°C -34°C 1413°C
Color Silvery Yellow-green Colorless (white)
Density 0.97 g/cm3 0.0032 g/cm3 2.16 g/cm3
Behavior in water Reacts Dissolves slightly Dissolves freely

24
 Reacting Atoms
 When elements undergo chemical reactions, the reacting
atoms do not turn into other elements
 Statement 4 of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 This requires that all the atoms present when you start the
reaction will still be there after the reaction
 Because the number of protons determines the kind of
element, the number of protons in the atom does not
change in a chemical reaction
 However, many reactions involve transferring electrons
from one atom to another

25
 Charged Atoms

 When atoms gain or lose electrons, they acquire a charge

 Charged atoms or groups of atoms are called ions
 When atoms gain electrons, they become negatively
charged ions, called anions
 When atoms lose electrons, they become positively
charged ions, called cations
Ions behave much differently than the neutral atoms
e.g., the metal sodium, made of neutral Na atoms, is highly reactive
and quite unstable; however, the sodium cations, Na+, found in table
salt are very nonreactive and stable
Because materials such as table salt are neutral, there must
be equal amounts of charge from cations and anions in them
26
 Charged Atoms
 Nonmetals form anions
 For each negative charge, the ion has one more electron
than the neutral atom
F = 9 p+ and 9 e−, F− = 9 p+ and 10 e−
P = 15 p+ and 15 e−, P3− = 15 p+ and 18 e−

 Metals form cations

 For each positive charge, the ion has one less electron
than the neutral atom
 Na atom = 11 p+ and 11 e−, Na+ ion = 11 p+ and 10 e−
 Ca atom = 20 p+ and 20 e−, Ca2+ ion = 20 p+ and 18 e−
27
 Ion Charge

 The charge on an ion can often be determined from an

element’s position on the Periodic Table
 Metals always form positively charged cations
 For many main group metals, the charge = the group
number
 Nonmetals form negatively charged anions
 For nonmetals, the charge = the group number − 8

28
Ion Charge

29
 Compound
a substance composed of two or more elements which are
chemically combined (electrovalent or covalent)

30
 Compound
Ionic Compounds
Compounds of metals with nonmetals are made of ions
metal atoms form cations, nonmetal atoms form anions
Each cation is surrounded by anions and vice-versa
No individual molecule units, instead they have a 3-
dimensional array of cations and anions made of formula
units

Table salt – contains an array of Na+ ions and Cl- ions 31

 Compound
Molecular Compounds
Compounds are composed of individual molecule units
Each molecule contains atoms (non-metal) of different
elements chemically attached by covalent bonds

Propane – contains
individual C3H8
molecules

32
 Compound
Ionic Compounds Contains polyatomic Ions
Compound contains polyatomic ions
several atoms attached together by covalent bonds into
one ion

33
 Mixture
 A group of two or more elements and/or
compounds that are physically intermingled.

34
Checkpoint 1
The scenes below represent an atomic-scale view of
substance A undergoing two different changes. Decide
whether each scene shows a physical or a chemical change.

35
Checkpoint 2

Classify each of the following as either an Atomic Element,

Molecular Element, Molecular Compound, or Ionic Compound

Argon, Ar
Barium chloride, BaCl2
Phosphorus, P4
Acetone, C3H6O
Calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2
Nikel, Ni

36
Checkpoint 3
The following scenes represent an atomic-scale view of
three samples of matter. Describe each sample as an
element, compound, or mixture.

37
 1.2 Naming of Chemical
Compounds
1.2.1 Naming Binary Ionic Compound for
Metals with Invariant Charge
1.2.2 Naming Binary Ionic Compound for
Metals with Variable Charges
1.2.3 Naming Compound Containing
Polyatomic Ions
1.2.4 Acid Nomenclature
1.2.5 Naming Binary Molecular Compounds
of Two Nonmetals
1.2.6 Naming Hydrated Compounds
1.2.7 Basic Nomeclature
38
Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
for Metals with Invariant Charge
 Consists of metal (cation) and nonmetal (anion)
 Metal listed first and followed by nonmmetal in formula
1. name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second
2. cation name should use the metal name itself
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide

39
 Naming Metal Cations (Invariant Charge)

Metals with invariant charge,

metals whose ions can only
have one possible charge

40
 Naming Monatomic Nonmetal Anion
 Determine the charge from position on the Periodic Table
 To name anion, change ending on the element name to –
ide

41
 Example 1: Naming Binary Ionic with Invariant
Charge Metal CsF
1. Identify cation and anion
Cs = Cs+ because it is Group 1A
F = F− because it is Group 7A
2. Name the cation
Cs+ = cesium
3. Name the anion
F− = fluoride
4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name
Cesium fluoride

42
Checkpoint 4
Name the ionic compound formed from each of the
following pairs of elements:
(a) Bromine and strontium
(b) Rubidium and sulfur
(c) Beryllium and oxygen

43
Checkpoint 5
Name the ionic compound from each of the following
chemical formulas:
(a) K3N
(b) ScCl3
(c) Al2S3
(d) LiH

44
Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds
for Metals with Variable Charge
 Consists of metal (cation) and nonmetal anion
 Metal listed first in formula and name
1. name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second
2. metal cation name is the metal name followed by a Roman numeral
in parentheses to indicate its charge
 determine charge from anion charge
 common ions Table 3.4
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide

45
 Naming Metal Cations (Variable Charges)
• Metals with variable
Charges
 metals whose ions
can have more than
one possible charge
 determine charge
by charge on anion
and cation
 name = metal name
with Roman
numeral charge in
parentheses

46
 Example 2: Naming binary ionic with variable
charge metal CuF2
1. Identify the cation and anion
F = F− because it is Group 7
Cu = Cu2+ to balance the two (−) charges from 2 F−
2. Name the cation
Cu2+ = copper(II)
3. Name the anion
F− = fluoride
4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name
copper(II) fluoride

47
Checkpoint 6
Name the ionic compound formed from each of the
following pairs of elements:
(a) Bromine and chromium (II)
(b) Cobalt (III) and sulfur
(c) Fluorine and copper (II)
(d) Tin (IV) and oxygen

48
Checkpoint 7
Name the ionic compound from each of the following
chemical formulas:
a) VI3
b) MnS2
c) PbCl4
d) Hg2Br2

49
 Rules for Naming Compounds Containing
Polyatomic Ions
 Polyatomic ions are single ions that contain more than one
atom
 Often identified by parentheses around ion in formula
 Name and charge of polyatomic ion do not change
 Name any ionic compound by naming cation first and then
anion

50
 Polyatomic Cations and Anions
Formula Name Formula Name
Common Cations
NH4+ ammonium H 3 O+ hydronium
CH3NH3+ metylammonium NH3+OH hydroxylammonium
Common Anions
CH3COO- acetate CO32- carbonate
CN- cyanide HCO3- bicarbonate
OH- hydroxide CrO42- chromate
ClO- hypochlorite Cr2O72- dichromate
ClO2- chlorite O22- peroxide
ClO3- chlorate PO43- phosphate
NO2- nitrite HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
NO3- nitrate SO32- sulfite
MnO4- permanganate SO42- sulfate

51
Example 3: Naming ionic compounds containing
an invariant charge metal with polyatomic ion
Na2SO4
1. Identify the ions
Na = Na+ because in Group 1A
SO4 = SO42− a polyatomic ion
2. Name the cation
Na+ = sodium, metal with invariant charge
3. Name the anion
SO42− = sulfate
4. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
sodium sulfate

52
 Example 4: Naming ionic compounds containing
variable charges metal with polyatomic ion
Fe(NO3)3
1. Identify the ions
NO3 = NO3− a polyatomic ion
Fe = Fe3+ to balance the charge of the 3 NO3−
2. Name the cation
Fe3+ = iron(III), metal with variable charge
3. Name the anion
NO3− = nitrate
4. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
iron(III) nitrate

53
 Example 5: Naming compounds containing
polyatomic cation and polyatomic anion
(NH4)2CO3
1. Identify the cation
NH4+ = ammonium
2. Identify the anion
CO32− = carbonate
3. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
Ammonium carbonate

54
Checkpoint 8
Name the polyatomic ion compound
(a) Ba(NO3)2
(b) Cu(CN)2
(c) CH3NH3Br

55
Periodic Pattern of Polyatomic Ions
-ate groups

56
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
 When there are two oxyanions involving the same element:
– The one with fewer oxygens ends in -ite.
• NO2− : nitrite; SO32− : sulfite
– The one with more oxygens ends in -ate.
• NO3− : nitrate; SO42− sulfate
 If the polyatomic ion have charge more than -1 for
example CO32-, PO43- or SO42- , add hydrogen in front of
ion then use hydrogen- prefix before name and neutral 1
to the charge
• CO32− = carbonate  HCO3− = hydrogen carbonate
• SO42- = sulfate  HSO4- = hydrogen sulfate
• PO43- = phosphate  HPO42- = hydrogen phosphate
If add another one hydrogen
• PO43- = phosphate  H2PO4- = Dihydrogen phosphate
57
 Patterns in Oxyanion Nomenclature
• The one with the second fewest oxygens ends in -ite.
– ClO2− : chlorite
• The one with the second most oxygens ends in -ate.
– ClO3− : chlorate

• The one with the fewest oxygens has the prefix hypo - and
ends in -ite.
– ClO− : hypochlorite
• The one with the most oxygens has the prefix per- and
ends in -ate.
– ClO4− : perchlorate

58
Acid Nomenclature
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ate, change
the ending to -ic acid.
– HClO3: chloric acid
– HClO4: perchloric acid

• If the anion in the acid

ends in -ite, change
the ending to -ous
acid.
– HClO: hypochlorous acid
– HClO2: chlorous acid

59
Acid Nomenclature

• If the anion in the acid

ends in -ide, change
the ending to -ic acid
and add the prefix
hydro- .
– HCl: hydrochloric acid
– HBr: hydrobromic acid
– HI: hydroiodic acid

60
Acid Nomenclature

61
Checkpoint 9
Name the following oxoacid and oxoanion
(a) HBrO
(b) H2AsO4-
(c) HNO2
(d) IO4-
(e) CrO42-
(f) H2Cr2O7

62
 Rules for Naming of Binary Molecular
Compounds of Two Nonmetals
1. Write name of first element in formula
a) element furthest left and down on the Periodic Table
b) use the full name of the element
2. Writes name the second element in the formula with an -
ide suffix
a) as if it were an anion, however, remember these compounds do
not contain ions!
3. Use a prefix in front of each name to indicate the number
of atoms
a) Never use the prefix mono- on the first element

63
 Subscript – Prefixes

• 1 = mono- • 6 = hexa-
 not used on first nonmetal
• 2 = di- • 7 = hepta-
• 3 = tri- • 8 = octa-
• 4 = tetra- • 9 = nona-
• 5 = penta- • 10 = deca-

• Drop last “a” if name begins with a vowel

64
 Example 6: Naming a binary molecular
compound SF4
1. Name the first element
sulfur
2. Name the second element with an –ide
fluorine  fluoride
3. Add a prefix to each name to indicate the subscript
Monosulfur, tetrafluoride
4. Write the first element with prefix, then the second
element with prefix
a) drop prefix mono from first element
sulfur tetrafluoride

65
Checkpoint 10
Name the following molecular compound or write the
chemical formulas for the following molecular
compound
(a) P2O4
(b) I2F7
(c) Diboron trioxide
(d) Bromine pentachloride

66
 Rules for Naming Hydrated Compounds
• Hydrates are ionic compounds
containing a specific number of waters
for each formula unit
• Water of hydration often “driven off” by
heating
• In formula, attached waters follow ∙
 CoCl2∙6H2O
• In name attached waters indicated by
prefix+hydrate after name of ionic
compound
 CoCl2∙6H2O = cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
 CaSO4∙½H2O = calcium sulfate hemihydrate

67
 CoCl2
CoCl2•6H2O

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4

68
Checkpoint 11
Name the following compound or write the chemical
formula
(a) BaCl2.2H2O
(b) LiCl.H2O
(c) Sr(NO3)2.4H2O
(d) MgSO4.7H2O

69
 Basic Nomenclature
A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.

NaOH Sodium hydroxide

Invariant KOH Potassium hydroxide

charge
Ba(OH)2 Barium hydroxide

CuOH Copper (I) hydroxide

Variant
Cu(OH)2 Copper (II) hydroxide
charge

Fe(OH)3 Iron (III) hydroxide

70
Checkpoint 12

Explain what is wrong with the name or formula at

the end of each statement and correct it:

(a) Ba(C2H3O2)2 – barium diacetate

(b) Ammonium phosphate – (NH3)4PO4
(c) Iron (II) sulfate – Fe2(SO4)3
(d) Cr(NO3)3 - chromic (III) nitride
(e) Dichlorine heptaoxide – Cl2O6
(f) BrCl3 – Trichlorine bromide
(g) Sodium hypochlorous

71
 1.3 Stoichiometry
1.3.1 Relative Atomic Mass
1.3.2 The Mole Concept and Avogadro
Constant
1.3.3 Molar Mass
1.3.4 Molar Volume of Gases
1.3.5 Percent Composition
1.3.6 Chemical Formula
1.3.7 Balanced Chemical Equations
1.3.8 Stoichiometric Calculations (Amount
of Reactant and Product)
1.3.9 Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and
Actual Yield
72
 Relative Atomic Mass and Relative
Molecular Mass
One atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 the mass of one
atom of the carbon-12 isotope.
The mass of single C-12 atom is 1.992 x 10-23 g. The
number of atoms C in one mole is exactly 6.022 X 1023
The relative atomic masses of all elements are found by
comparing the mass of one atom of element with the mass of
C-12 atom
The relative atomic mass of an element is defined as the
ratio of the mass of one atom of the element to 1/12 of the
mass of a C-12 atom.
Mass of one atom of the element
Relative atomic mass = 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12

Mass of one atom of the element x 12

Relative atomic mass = Mass of one atom of C-12 73
 Relative Isotopic Mass
The relative isotopic mass is the ratio of the mass of one
atom of an isotope to 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12

Mass of one atom of the isotope

Relative isotopic mass = 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12

Mass of one atom of the isotope x 12

Relative isotopic mass = Mass of one atom of C-12

74
 Determining Relative Atomic Mass from
Isotopic Abundance
Elements that do not have isotopes (e.g; Fluorine-19)
relative atomic mass is the same as the relative isotopic mass

Elements consists of isotopes, the relative atomic mass is

the average of the masses of its naturally occurring isotopes
weighted according to their abundances.

Atomic mass is calculated by multiplying relative isotopic

mass of each isotope by its relative abundance (fractional
abundance) and adding all these values together

75
Example 7: If copper is 69.17% Cu-63 with a
mass of 62.9396 amu and the rest Cu-65 with a
mass of 64.9278 amu, find the atomic mass of
copper

Cu-63 = 69.17%, 62.9396 amu

Cu-65 = 100-69.17%, 64.9278 amu
atomic mass, amu

76
Checkpoint 13
1. There are two isotopes of Gallium:
Ga-69 with mass 68.9256 amu and abundance of 60.11%; and
Ga-71 with mass 70.9247 amu and abundance of 39.89%.
Calculate the atomic mass of gallium.

2. The isotopic masses of Li-6 and Li-7 are given as 6.01512

amu and 7.01601 amu respectively. If the atomic mass of
Li is 6.941 amu, calculate the % abundance of the two
isotopes

3. Given that Ag-107 (51.839% abundance) and the mass

ratio : Ag-109/Ag-107 = 1.0187. Calculate the mass of Ag-
107. (Atomic mass of Ag = 107.87 amu)
77
 Mole Concept and Avogadro Constant
 Mole = number of particles equal to the number of atoms
in 12 g of C-12
 The mass of single C-12 atom is 1.992 x 10-23 g. The
number of atoms C in one mole is exactly 6.022 X 1023
 1 atom of C-12 weighs exactly 12.01 amu
 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g
 1 mole of C-12 weighs exactly 12.01 g
NA = Mass per mole of C-12
Mass of one atom of C-12
= 12 g/mol
1.992 x 10-23 g
= 6.022 x 1023 mol-1
 The number of particles in 1 mole is called Avogadro’s
Number = 6.0221421 x 1023

78
 Mole Concept and Avogadro Constant
Number of Atoms and Molecules
1 mol of copper, Cu contains 6.022 x 1023 of Cu atoms.
1 mol of water , H2O contains 6.022 x 1023 of H2O
molecules.
1 mol of MgCl2 crystal contains 6.022 x 1023 of MgCl2 formula
units.
The following relationships supply the conversion factors for the
conversions among mass in grams, amount in moles, and number of
elementary units,
Mass (gram) of substance
Mol substance = molar mass of substance (g mol-1)

Number of elementary units = mol X Avogadro’s No

(atoms / molecules / formula units)
79
Mole Concept and Avogadro Constant
Mole and Mass Relationships

1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 g

1 mole 1 mole
sulfur carbon
32.06 g 12.01 g

80
 Example 8 : Calculate the number of atoms in
2.45 mol of copper
Given: 2.45 mol Cu
Find:
atoms Cu
Conceptual Plan: mol Cu atoms Cu
Relationships:
1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Solution:

Check: because atoms are small, the large number of atoms makes
sense

81
Example 9 : How many copper atoms are in a
penny weighing 3.10 g?
Given: 3.10 g Cu
Find: atoms Cu

Conceptual Plan:
g Cu mol Cu atoms Cu
Relationships:

1 mol Cu = 63.55 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Solution:

Check: because the given amount is much less than 1 mol Cu, the
number makes sense

82
 Example 10 : A silver ring contains 1.1 x 1022
silver atoms. How many moles of silver are in
the ring?
Given: 1.1 x 1022 atoms Ag
Find: moles Ag

Conceptual Plan:
atoms Ag mol Ag

Relationships:
1 mol = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

Solution:

Check: because the number of atoms given is less than Avogadro’s number,
the answer makes sense
83
Checkpoint 14

Calculate the number of

(i) formula units of AlF3 ,
(ii) F- ions and
(iii) Al3+ ions and
(iv) all the ions in 0.02 mol of the compound AlF3.

84
 Molar Mass
The molar mass (M) is the mass in grams of one mole of its
entities (atoms, molecules or formula units). The unit for
molar mass is g mol-1
For monatomic elements, the molar mass is the same as
the atomic mass in grams per mole. The atomic mass is
simply read from the Periodic Table.
The molar mass of Ne = 20.18 g/mol.

For molecular elements, the molar mass of nitrogen is 2 x

14.01 = 28.02 g/mol. It is important to note that type of
particle (atom, molecule or ion). A statement such as “1 mole
of nitrogen is ambiguous, misinterpretation can mean 1 mole
nitrogen atoms (14.01 g/mol) or 1 mole of nitrogen molecules
(28.02 g/mol)
85
 Molar Mass
Formula/Molecular Mass/Molecular weight for compound
is obtained by summing the masses of the component atoms
Molecular weight for 1 mole of Glucose C6H12O6 is MW = 180.16
g/mol)
Carbon (C) Hydrogen (H) Oxygen (O)

Atoms/molecule of 6 atoms 12 atoms 6 atoms

compound

Moles of atoms/mole 6 mol of atoms 12 mol of atoms 6 mol of atoms

of compound

Atoms/mole of 6(6.022x1023) atoms 12(6.022x1023) atoms 6(6.022x1023) atoms

compound

Mass/molecule of 6(12.01 amu) 12(1.008 amu) 6(16.00 amu) =

compound = 72.06 amu = 12.10 amu 96.00 amu

Mass/mole of 72.06 g 12.10 g 96.00 g

compound

86
 Interconverting Moles, Mass, and Number of
Chemical Entities
no. of grams
Mass (g) = no. of moles x g
1 mol

1 mol
No. of moles = mass (g) x M
no. of grams

6.022x1023 entities
No. of entities = no. of moles x
1 mol

1 mol
No. of moles = no. of entities x
6.022x1023 entities
87
Mass-mole-number Amount-mass-number
relationships for relationships for
elements. compounds.

88
Example 11: Find the number of CO2 molecules
in 10.8 g of dry ice
Given: 10.8 g CO2
Find: molecules CO2

Conceptual Plan: g CO2 mol CO2 molec CO2

Relationships:

1 mol CO2 = 44.01 g,

1 mol = 6.022 x 1023
Solution:

Check: because the given amount is much less than 1 mol CO2, the
number makes sense

89
Example 12 — How many formula units are in
50.0 g of PbO2? (PbO2 = 239.2)
Given: 50.0 g PbO2
Find: formula units PbO2

Conceptual Plan:
g PbO2 mol PbO2 units PbO2
Relationships:

1 mol PbO2 = 239.2 g,1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Solution:

Check: because the given amount is less than 1 mol PbO2, the
number makes sense

90
Example 13 — What is the mass of 4.78 x 1024
NO2 molecules?
Given: 4.78 x 1024 NO2 molecules
Find: g NO2

Conceptual Plan:
molecules mol NO2 g NO2
Relationships:

1 mol NO2 = 46.01 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Solution:

Check: because the given amount is more than Avogadro’s

number, the mass > 46 g makes sense
91
Checkpoint 15

Dimethylnitrosamine (CH3)2N2O is carcinogenic substance

that formed in foods, beverages or gastric juices.
a) Calculate the molar mass
b) Calculate the moles of 2.5 g of dimethylnitrosamine
c) How many atoms of nitrogen are present in 1.0 x 1016
molecules of dimethylnitrosamine
d) What is the mass in grams of one molecule of
dimethylnitrosamine

92
Checkpoint 16
Hemoglobin C2952H4664N812O832S8Fe4 is the oxygen carrier in
blood
(a) Calculate its molar mass
(b) An average adult has about 5.2 L of blood. Every
millimeter of blood has approximately 5.0 x 109
erythrocytes (red blood cells), and every erythrocytes has
2.8 x 108 hemoglobin molecules. Calculate the mass of
hemoglobin molecules in grams in an average adult.

93
 Molar Volume of Gases
The elements exist in gas state, the volume occupied by one
mole of any gas is called the molar volume
At s.t.p (standard temperature and pressure), the molar gas volume
is 22.4 dm3. The condition for s.t.p are 0oC and 1 atm pressure.

At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p) (20oC and 1 atm pressure)
the molar gas volume is 24dm3

The relationship between the number of moles of a gas and

the volume of a gas is given by the formula:
Volume of gas (dm3)
Mol substance (gas) = 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p

Volume of gas (dm3)

Mol substance (gas) = 22 dm3 at r.t.p

94
Example 14 – The decomposition of KClO3
produced 48 dm3 of oxygen gas. How many
moles of oxygen gas are there and calculate the
mass of oxygen gas.
Volume of gas (dm3)
Number of moles of O2 =
22.4 dm3 at s.t.p
48 dm3

22.4 dm3 at s.t.p

= 2.14 mol

Mass of O2 = 2.14 mol x 32g/mol = 68.6 g

95
Checkpoint 17

Carbon dioxide gas is obtained from the fermentation of

glucose. If 20.0 dm3 of carbon dioxide (at s.t.p) are collected,
how many atoms oxygen are present in this gas?

96
 Percent Composition
Mass percent can also be used to calculate the mass of a
particular element in any mass of a compound.

• Percentage by mass of each element in a compound

Compound: XaYb

Mass % of element X = (atomic mass of X) x (a)

Molar mass of XaYb

Mass % of element Y = (atomic mass of Y) x (b)

Molar mass of XaYb

97
 Percent Composition
Percent composition of an element in a compound =
n x molar mass of element
x 100%
molar mass of compound

n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of

the compound
2 x (12.01 g)
%C = x 100% = 52.14%
46.07 g
6 x (1.008 g)
%H = x 100% = 13.13%
46.07 g
1 x (16.00 g)
%O = x 100% = 34.73%
46.07 g
C2H6O 52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%
98
Example 15 : Find the mass percent of Cl in
C2Cl4F2

Given: C2Cl4F2
Find:
% Cl by mass
Conceptual Plan:

Relationships:

Solution:

Check: because the percentage is less than 100 and Cl is

much heavier than the other atoms, the number
makes sense 99
 Percent Composition
Mass Percent as a Conversion Factor

• The mass percent tells you the mass of a constituent

element in 100 g of the compound
– the fact that CCl2F2 is 58.64% Cl by mass means that
100 g of CCl2F2 contains 58.64 g Cl
• This can be used as a conversion factor
– 100 g CCl2F2 : 58.64 g Cl

100
Example 16 : Find the mass of table salt
containing 2.4 g of Na

Given: 2.4 g Na, 39% Na

Find: g NaCl

Conceptual Plan: g Na g NaCl

Relationships:
100 g NaCl : 39 g Na

Solution:

Check: because the mass of NaCl is more than 2x the mass of

Na, the number makes sense
101
Example 17: Benzaldehyde contains 79.2%
carbon. What mass of benzaldehyde contains
19.8 g of C?
Given: 19.8 g C, 79.2% C
Find: g benzaldehyde

Conceptual Plan: gC g benzaldehyde

Relationships:

100 g benzaldehyde : 79.2 g C

Solution:

Check: because the mass of benzaldehyde is more than the

mass of C, the number makes sense
102
 Percent Composition
Conversion Factors in Chemical Formulas

• Chemical formulas have inherent in them

relationships between numbers of atoms and
molecules
or moles of atoms and molecules
• These relationships can be used to convert
between amounts of constituent elements and
molecules
like percent composition

103
Example 18 : Find the mass of sodium in 6.2 g of
NaCl
(Na = 22.99; Cl = 35.45)
Given: 6.2 g NaCl
Find: g Na
Conceptual Plan: g NaCl mol NaCl mol Na g Na

Relationships:
1 mol NaCl = 58.44 g, 1 mol Na = 22.99 g,
1 mol Na : 1 mol NaCl

Solution:

Check: because the amount of Na is less than the amount of NaCl, the answer
makes sense
104
Checkpoint 18
1. A mixture of NaBr and Na2SO4 contains 29.96 % Na by
mass. Calculate the percent by mass of each compound in
the mixture
2. A mixture of CUSO4.5H2O and MgSO4.7H2O is heated until
all the water is lost. If 5.020g of mixture gives 2.988g of the
anhydrous salts, what is the percent by mass of
CuSO4.5H2O.

105
Checkpoint 19
1. Myoglobin stores oxygen for metabolic processes in
muscle. Chemical analysis shows that it contains 0.34%
Fe by mass. What is the molar mass of myoglobin?
(There is one Fe atom per molecule).
2. The aluminium sulfate hydrate [Al2(SO4)3.xH2O] contains
8.10 % Al by mass. Calculate x, that is the number of
water molecules associated with each Al2(SO4)3 unit.
3. An oxybromate compound KBrOx, where x is unknown, is
analyzed and found to contain 52.92% Br. What is the
value of x?

106
 Chemical Formulas
Formulas Describe Compounds

• A compound is a distinct substance that is composed of

atoms of two or more elements
• Describe the compound by describing the number and type
of each atom in the simplest unit of the compound
 molecules or ions
• Each element is represented by its letter symbol
• The number of atoms of each element is written to the right
of the element as a subscript
 if there is only one atom, the 1 subscript is not written
• Polyatomic ions are placed in parentheses
 if more than one

107
 Chemical Formulas
Representing Compounds with Chemical Formula

Compounds are generally represented with a chemical

formula

The amount of information about the structure of the

compound varies with the type of formula
all formula and models convey a limited amount of
information – none are perfect representations

All chemical formulas tell what elements are in the

compound
use the letter symbol of the element

108
Chemical Formulas

109
 Chemical Formulas
Types of Formula: Empirical Formula

An empirical formula gives the relative number of atoms of

each element in a compound it does not describe how many
atoms, the order of attachment, or the shape the formulas for
ionic compounds are empirical

The empirical formula for the molecular compound oxalic acid is

CHO2.
This means that there is 1 C atom and 1 H atom for every 2 O
atoms in the molecule. The actual molecular formula is C2H2O4.

110
 Chemical Formulas

Types of Formula: Molecular Formula

A molecular formula gives the actual number of atoms of

each element in a molecule of a compound it does not
describe the order of attachment, or the shape

The molecular formula is C2H2O4. This does not

tell you that the carbon atoms are attached
together in the center of the molecule, and that
each is attached to two oxygen atoms.

111
 Chemical Formulas
Types of Formula: Structural Formula
A structural formula uses lines to represent covalent bonds
and shows how atoms in a molecule are connected or
bonded to each other it does not directly describe the 3-
dimensional shape, but an experienced chemist can make a
good guess at it each line describes the number of electrons
shared by the bonded atoms
single line = two shared electrons, a single covalent bond
double line = four shared electrons, a double covalent bond
triple line ≡ six shared electrons, a triple covalent bond

112
 Chemical Formulas
Example 19 : Structural Formula

113
Chemical Formulas

114
 Chemical Formulas
Example 20: Find the empirical formula for each of the
following
The ionic compound that has two aluminum Al2O3
ions for every three oxide ions
CH2O
arabinose, C5H10O5 H

H C
C N C 2H 2N
pyrimidine C C
H N H

CH3O
ethylene glycol

115
Example 21 : Write the molecular formula of
isoflurane,is a common inhalation anesthetic,
from its ball-and-stick model, shown below.

H
F O
C C
F
C
H
F
F
C3H2OF5Cl
Cl

116
 Chemical Formulas
Compounds that Contain Ions

Compound must have no total charge, therefore we must

balance the numbers of cations and anions in a compound to
get 0 charge

If Na+ is combined with S2−, you will need two Na+ ions for
every S2− ion to balance the charges, therefore the formula
must be Na2S

The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula

117
 Chemical Formulas
Compounds that Contain Ions

The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive nonmetals (blue)
combine to form ionic compounds.
118
 Chemical Formulas
Writing the Formula of an Ionic Compound

1. Write the symbol for the metal cation and its charge
2. Write the symbol for the nonmetal anion and its charge
3. Charge (without sign) becomes subscript for other ion
4. Reduce subscripts to smallest whole number ratio
5. Check that the sum of the charges of the cations cancels
the sum of the anions

119
 Chemical Formulas
Example 22 : Writing the chemical formula for a binary
ionic compound containing invariant charge metal Ions
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

2 x +1 = +2 1 x -2 = -2
Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
120
 Chemical Formulas
Example 23: Writing the chemical formula for a binary
ionic compound containing variable charge metal
manganese(IV) sulfide

1. Write the symbol for the cation and

its charge Mn4+
2. Write the symbol for the anion and
S2-
its charge
3. Charge (without sign) becomes
subscript for other ion Mn4+ S2− Mn2S4
4. Reduce subscripts to smallest
whole number ratio
MnS2
5. Check that the total charge of the
cations cancels the total charge of
the anions Mn = (1)∙(4+) = +4
S = (2)∙(2−) = −4
121
 Chemical Formulas
Example 24: Writing the formula for ionic compounds
containing polyatomic ion
Iron(III) phosphate

1. Write the symbol for the cation and Fe3+

its charge
2. Write the symbol for the anion and PO43−
its charge
3. Charge (without sign) becomes Fe3+ PO43− Fe3(PO4)3
subscript for other ion
4. Reduce subscripts to smallest
whole number ratio FePO4
5. Check that the total charge of the
cations cancels the total charge of
Fe = (1)∙(3+) = +3
the anions
PO4 = (1)∙(3−) = −3
122
 Chemical Formulas
Example 25: Writing the formula for a compounds
containing polyatomic anion and polyatomic cation
Methyl ammonium phosphate

1. Write the symbol for the cation and

its charge CH3NH3+
2. Write the symbol for the anion and
its charge PO43−
3. Charge (without sign) becomes
subscript for other ion CH3NH3+PO43− (CH3NH3)3PO4
4. Reduce subscripts to smallest
whole number ratio
(CH3NH3)3PO4
5. Check that the total charge of the
cations cancels the total charge of
the anions CH NH = (+1)∙(3) = +3
3 3
PO4 = (1)∙(3−) = −3
123
 Chemical Formulas
Empirical Formula

 Simplest, whole-number ratio of the atoms of elements in

a compound
 Can be determined from elemental analysis
 masses of elements formed when a compound is decompose, or
that react together to form a compound
 combustion analysis
 percent composition

124
 Chemical Formulas
Finding an Empirical Formula

1. Convert the percentages to grams

a) assume you start with 100 g of the compound
b) skip if already in grams
2. Convert grams to moles
a) use molar mass of each element
3. Divide all by smallest number of moles
a) if result is within 0.1 of whole number, round to whole number
4. Multiply all mole ratios by a number to make all whole numbers
a) if ratio ?.5, multiply all by 2; if ratio ?.33 or ?.67, multiply all by 3;
if ratio 0.25 or 0.75, multiply all by 4; etc.
b) skip if already whole numbers

125
Example 26 : Laboratory analysis of aspirin determined
the following mass percent composition as follows:
C = 60.00%, H = 4.48% and O = 35.53%.
Calculate the empirical formula of aspirin.
Solution:
In 100 g of aspirin there are 60.00 g C, 4.48 g H, 35.53 g O
The conceptual plan is

gC mol C
whole empirical
gH mol H mole number formula
ratio ratio
gO mol O
126
Given the molar mass:
1 mol C = 12.01 g; 1 mol H = 1.008 g; 1 mol O = 16.00 g
calculate the moles of each element

The mole ratio of C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220

Divide the mole ratio by the smallest number of mole in
the above mole ratio to get the whole number mole ratio
127
Whole number mole ratio:
C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220 = 2.25 : 2 : 1
2.220 2.220 2.220
Choose a small number to multiply the mole ratio in order
to get the whole number mole ratio
Multiply by 4
C : H : O = 2.25 x 4 : 2 x 4 : 1 x 4
= 9: 8: 4
The empirical formula = C9H8O4

Once you’ve learnt how to convert one unit to another

according to the conceptual plan, you can evaluate
the empirical formula in a table format.
128
 Element C H O
% composition
by mass (g) 60.00 4.48 35.53

Relative atomic
mass 12.01 1.008 16.00

Number of
moles 4.996 4.44 2.220

Mole ratios 4.996 4.44 2.220

2.220 2.220 2.220
= 2.25 =2 =1
Simplest ratio
(x4) 9 8 4

129
 Chemical Formulas
Molecular Formulas

• The molecular formula is a multiple of the

empirical formula
• To determine the molecular formula you need to
know the empirical formula and the molar mass
of the compound

130
 Example 27 : Find the molecular formula of
butanedione
Given: emp. form. = C2H3O;
MM = 86.03 g/mol
Find: molecular formula

Conceptual Plan: and

Relationships:

Solution:

Check:
the molar mass of the calculated formula is in agreement with the
given molar mass
131
Checkpoint 20
Methyl salicylate has a mass percent composition of 63.2% C, 31.6% O
and 5.26% H. The mass of one molecule of the compound is 2.53 x 10-22
g. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of methyl
salicylate.

The mass percent composition of an organic acid is given as 41.4% C,

3.47% H, 55.1% O. 0.05 mol of this acid has a mass of 5.80g. Determine
the empirical formula and the molecular formula of this acid.

An 0.648 g sample of isobutene contains 0.556g of carbon and the rest is

hydrogen. 0.5 mol of the isobutene has a mass of 28.5g. What is the
empirical formula and molecular formula of isobutene.

132
 Chemical Formulas
Combustion Analysis

• A common technique for analyzing compounds is to burn a

known mass of compound and weigh the amounts of
product made
 generally used for organic compounds containing C, H, O
• By knowing the mass of the product and composition of
constituent element in the product, the original amount of
constituent element can be determined
 all the original C forms CO2, the original H forms H2O, the original
mass of O is found by subtraction
• Once the masses of all the constituent elements in the
original compound have been determined, the empirical
formula can be found
133
 Chemical Formulas
Combustion Analysis

m m
CnHm + (n+ ) O2 = n CO(g) + H O(g)
2 2 2

134
Example 28
Combustion of a 0.8233 g sample of a compound
containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
produced 2.445 g CO2 and 0.6003 g H2O. Determine
the empirical formula of the compound

Solution:
Let the empirical formula to be CxHyOz
Write a conceptual plan

g mol mol g g mol

CO2, H2O CO2, H2O C, H C, H O O

mol mol empirical

C, H, O ratio formula

135
Convert : g CO2 mol CO2 mol C
9 H2 O mol H2O 2 mol H
Use the following relationship:
Molar mass of CO2 = 12.01 + (16.00)2 = 44.01 g/mol
Molar mass of H2O = 2(1.008) + 16.00 = 18.02 g/mol
1mol CO2 = 1 mol C; 1mol H2O = 2 mol H

136
Calculate the grams of C and H using molar mass of C and H

Calculate the grams and moles of O

Mass of O = Mass of compound – (mass of C + mass of H)
= 0.8233 g – (0.6673 g + 0.06715 g) = 0.0889 g O

137
Mole ratio C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
Divide by the smallest mole
C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
0.00556 0.00556 0.00556
= 10 : 12 : 1
The empirical formula = C10H12O

138
Checkpoint 21
The smell of dirty gym socks is caused by the compound
caproic acid. Combustion of 0.844 g of caproic acid produced
0.784 g of H2O and 1.92 g of CO2. If the molar mass of
caproic acid is 116.2 g/mol, what is the molecular formula of
caproic acid? (Molar mass C = 12.01, H = 1.008, O = 16.00)

139
Checkpoint 22
1. An organic compound was found to contain only C, H, and
Cl. When a 1.50 g sample of compound was completely
combusted in air 3.52g of CO2 was formed. In a separate
experiment the chlorine in a 1.0 g sample of the compound
was converted to 1.27 g of AgCl. Determine the empirical
formula of the compound.
2. Ferrocene, first synthesized in 1951, was the first organic
iron compound with Fe-C bonds. An understanding of the
structure of ferrocene gave rise to new ideas about
chemical bonding and led to the preparation of many
useful compounds, In combustion analysis of ferrocene,
which contains only Fe, C and H, a 0.9437 g of sample
produced 2.233 g of CO2 and 0.457 g of H2O. What is the
empirical formula of ferrocene?
140
Checkpoint 23
1. Lysine, an essential amino acid in the human body,
contains C,H,O and N. In one experiment, the complete
combustion of 2.175 g of lysine gave 3.94 g CO2 and 1.89
g H2O. In a separate experiment, 1.873 g of lysine gave
0.43g g of NH3.
(a) Calculate the empirical formula of lysine.

(b) The approximate molar mass of lysine is 150 g. What is

the molecular formula of the compound?

141
 Balanced Chemical Equations
Chemical Equations
• Shorthand way of describing a reaction
• Provides information about the reaction
formulas of reactants and products
states of reactants and products
relative numbers of reactant and product molecules
that are required
can be used to determine weights of reactants used
and products that can be made

142
 Balanced Chemical Equations
Chemical Equations
A chemical equation uses formulas to express the identities and
quantities of substances involved in a physical or chemical change.

The formation of HF gas on the macroscopic and molecular levels.

143
 Balanced Chemical Equations
Chemical Equations
A three-level view of the reaction between magnesium and oxygen.

144
 Balanced Chemical Equations
Features of Chemical Equations

A yield arrow points from

reactants to products.

Mg + O2 MgO

Reactants are written on the left.

Products are written on the right.

The equation must be balanced; the same number

and type of each atom must appear on both sides.
145
 Balanced Chemical Equations
translate the statement
magnesium and oxygen gas react to give
magnesium oxide:
Mg + O2 → MgO

balance the atoms using coefficients;

formulas cannot be changed

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

adjust coefficients if necessary

check that all atoms balance specify states of matter

2Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s)

146
 Balanced Chemical Equations
Combustion of Methane
• To show the reaction obeys the Law of Conservation of
Mass the equation must be balanced
 we adjust the numbers of molecules so there are equal numbers of
atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

O O O O
H H H H
+ +
C C + +
H H O O O
O H H
1C + 4H + 4O 1C + 4H + 4O
147
 Balanced Chemical Equations
Chemical Equations

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

• CH4 and O2 are the reactants, and CO2 and H2O are the
products
• The (g) after the formulas tells us the state of the
chemical
• The number in front of each substance tells us the
numbers of those molecules in the reaction
– called the coefficients

148
 Balanced Chemical Equations
Chemical Equations

CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)

• This equation is balanced, meaning that there are equal

numbers of atoms of each element on the reactant and
product sides
– to obtain the number of atoms of an element, multiply the
subscript by the coefficient
1C1
4H4
4O2+2

149
 Balanced Chemical Equations
Symbols Used in Equations

• Symbols used to indicate state after chemical

– (g) = gas; (l) = liquid; (s) = solid
– (aq) = aqueous = dissolved in water

150
 Example 29 : Write a balanced equation for the
combustion of butane, C4H10
Write a skeletal equation C4H10(l) + O2(g)  CO2(g) + H2O(g)

Balance atoms in complex 4C1x4

substances first C4H10(l) + O2(g)  4 CO2(g) + H2O(g)
10  H  2 x 5
C4H10(l) + O2(g)  4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)
Balance free elements by 13/2 x 2  O  13
adjusting coefficient in C4H10(l) + 13/2 O2(g)  4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)
front of free element

If fractional coefficients, {C4H10(l) + 13/2 O2(g)  4 CO2(g) + 5 H2O(g)}x 2

multiply thru by 2 C4H10(l) + 13 O2(g)  8 CO2(g) + 10 H2O(g)
denominator
Check 8  C  8; 20  H  20; 26  O  26
151
Example 30 : when aluminum metal reacts
with air, it produces a white, powdery
compound, aluminum oxide
reacting with air means reacting with O2
aluminum(s) + oxygen(g) aluminum oxide(s)
Al(s) + O2(g) Al2O3(s)

4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g)  2 Al2O3(s)

152
Example 31 : Acetic acid reacts with the metal
aluminum to make aqueous aluminum acetate
and gaseous hydrogen
acids are always aqueous
metals are solid except for mercury
Al(s) + HC2H3O2(aq) Al(C2H3O2)3(aq) + H2(g)

2 Al(s) + 6 HC2H3O2(aq)  2 Al(C2H3O2)3(aq) + 3 H2(g)

153
 Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Making Pizza
• The number of pizzas you can make depends on the
amount of the ingredients you use
1 crust + 5 oz. tomato sauce + 2 cu cheese  1 pizza

• This relationship can be expressed mathematically

1 crust : 5 oz. sauce : 2 cu cheese : 1 pizza
• If you want to make more or less than one pizza, you can use the amount of
cheese you have to determine the number of pizzas you can make
 assuming you have enough crusts and tomato sauce

154
 Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Chemical Reactions
• Reactions involve chemical changes in matter resulting
in new substances Reactants  Products
 Combination (2H2 + O2  2H2O) -synthesis
 Decomposition (2H2 + O2  2H2O) - electrolysis
 Single-displacement (CuSO4 + Zn  ZnSO4 + Cu)- substitution
 Double-displacement (AgNO3 + NaCl  AgCl + NaNO3)-
substitution
 Combustion (CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O)
 Neutralization (HCl + NaOH  NaCl + H2O)- Acid-base
• Reactions involve rearrangement and exchange of
atoms to produce new molecules
– elements are not transmuted during a reaction
155
 Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Units

• Always write every number with its associated unit

• Always include units in your calculations
– you can do the same kind of operations on units
as you can on numbers
• cm × cm = cm2
• cm + cm = cm
• cm ÷ cm = 1
– using units as a guide to problem solving is called
dimensional analysis

156
 Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)

Quantities in Chemical Reactions

• The amount of every substance used and made in a
chemical reaction is related to the amounts of all the other
substances in the reaction
Law of Conservation of Mass
Balancing equations by balancing atoms
• The study of the numerical relationship between chemical
quantities in a chemical reaction is called stoichiometry

157
 Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Reaction Stoichiometry

• The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation specify

the relative amounts in moles of each of the substances
involved in the reaction

2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g)  16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)

2 molecules of C8H18 react with 25 molecules of O2
to form 16 molecules of CO2 and 18 molecules of H2O
2 moles of C8H18 react with 25 moles of O2
to form 16 moles of CO2 and 18 moles of H2O
2 mol C8H18 : 25 mol O2 : 16 mol CO2 : 18 mol H2O
158
 Stoichiometric Calculation
(Amount of Reactants and Products)
Predicting Amounts from Stoichiometry
The amounts of any other substance in a chemical reaction can be
determined from the amount of just one substance. A chemically
balanced equation in the calculation
Example 32
a) How many moles of CO2 can be produced in the
combustion of 22.0 moles of C8H18 ?
The equation of reaction is
2 C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g)  16 CO2(g) + 18 H2O(g)
The mole: mole relationship from the balanced equation
2 moles C8H18 : 16 moles CO2

159
Example 33 : Estimate the mass of CO2 produced
by the combustion of 3.5 x 1015 g gasoline, C8H18.
Given: 3.4 x 1015 g C8H18
Find: g CO2

Conceptual Plan: g C8H18 mol C8H18 mol CO2 g CO2

Relationships:
1 mol C8H18 = 114.22g, 1 mol CO2 = 44.01g, 2 mol C8H18:16 mol CO2

Solution:

Check:
because 8x moles of CO2 as C8H18, but the molar mass of
C8H18 is 3x CO2, the number makes sense
160
Checkpoint 24
How many moles of carbon dioxide gas can be produced when
35.1g of propane is burned completely in a rich supply of
oxygen?
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O

Checkpoint 25
The reaction between C7H6O3 and C4H6O3 is given by
2 C7H6O3 + C4H6O3  2 C9H8O4 + H2O
a) How many grams of C4H6O3 are required to react
completely with 125g of salicylate acid, C7H6O3.
b) Calculate the mass in grams of aspirin, C9H8O4 formed in
the above reaction, that is, reaction (a).

161
Checkpoint 26

What volume of hydrogen is formed when 3.00 g of

magnesium react with an excess of dilute sulfuric acid is
carried out under room temperature and pressure at 1 atm.

Checkpoint 27
In the preparation of hydrogen chloride by the reaction
NaCl (s) + H2SO4 (l)  HCl (g) + NaHSO4 (s)
a) How many grams of sodium chloride and sulfuric acid are
required for the production of 10.0 dm3 of hydrogen
chloride at s.t.p?
162
Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Actual
Yield
Limiting Reactants
• So far we have assumed that reactants are present in the
correct amounts to react completely.
• In reality, one reactant may limit the amount of product
that can form.
• The limiting reactant will be completely used up in the
reaction.
• The reactant that is not limiting is in excess – some of
this reactant will be left over.

163
An ice cream sundae analogy for limiting reactions.

164
Example 34
How many moles of Si3N4 can be made from 1.20 moles
of Si and 1.00 moles of N2 in the reaction 3 Si + 2 N2 
Si3N4?
Given: 1.20 mol Si, 1.00 mol N2
Find: mol Si3N4

Conceptual Plan:
mol Si mol Si3N4 Pick least
Limiting
amount
reactant and
Relationships: theoretical
mol N2 mol Si3N4
yield

2 mol N2 : 1 Si3N4; 3 mol Si : 1 Si3N4

Solution:
Limiting
reactant
Theoretical yield
165
Checkpoint 28
Consider the reaction between iron (III) oxide, Fe2O3 and
carbon monoxide, CO.
Fe2O3 + 3CO  2Fe + 3CO2
In one process, 213 g of Fe2O3 are reacted with 140 g of CO.
(a) calculate the mass (in grams) of Fe formed. (b) How
many moles of the excess reagent is left at the end of the
reaction?

166
Checkpoint 29
In one experiment x grams of CS2 is mixed with y grams of
NaOH. The reaction is represented by the unbalanced
equation below.
CS2 + NaOH  Na2CS3 + Na2CO3 + H2O

At the end of the reaction, 7.5 g of Na2CO3 is formed while

3.3 g of CS2 is left unreacted in the reaction vessel. All the
NaOH in the vessel is completely consumed.
a) Balance the above equation
b) Calculate the amount of CS2 (x grams) and
NaOH (y grams) added to the reaction vessel at the beginning
of the reaction.

167
Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Actual
Yield
Theoretical and Actual Yield
• As we did with the pizzas, in order to determine the
theoretical yield, we should use reaction stoichiometry to
determine the amount of product each of our reactants
could make
• The theoretical yield will always be the least possible
amount of product
– the theoretical yield will always come from the limiting
reactant
• Because of both controllable and uncontrollable factors,
the actual yield of product will always be less than the
theoretical yield
168
Limiting Reactants, Theoretical and Actual
Yield
Theoretical and Actual Yield
• Let’s now assume that as we are making pizzas, we burn a
pizza, drop one on the floor, or other uncontrollable events
happen so that we only make two pizzas. The actual
amount of product made in a chemical reaction is called
the actual yield.

• We can determine the efficiency of making pizzas by

calculating the percentage of the maximum number of
pizzas we actually make. In chemical reactions, we call
this the percent yield.

169
Example 35 :
When 28.6 kg of C are allowed to react with 88.2 kg of
TiO2 in the reaction below, 42.8 kg of Ti are obtained.
Find the limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and percent
yield.
TiO2 (s)  2 C(s)  Ti(s)  2 CO(g)

}
kg
C smallest
amount is
from
limiting
kg reactant
TiO2

smallest
mol Ti
170
Relationship required :
1000 g = 1 kg
Molar Mass TiO2 = 79.87 g/mol
Molar Mass Ti = 47.87 g/mol
Molar Mass C = 12.01 g/mol
1 mole TiO2 : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)
2 mole C : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)

limiting reactant
smallest moles of Ti
171
 theoretical yield

limiting reactant = TiO2, theoretical yield = 52.9 kg

percent yield = 80.9%
Because Ti has lower molar mass than TiO2, the T.Y. makes sense and
the percent yield makes sense as it is less than 100%
172
Checkpoint 30
How many grams of N2(g) can be made from 9.05 g of NH3
reacting with 45.2 g of CuO?
2 NH3(g) + 3 CuO(s) → N2(g) + 3 Cu(s) + 3 H2O(l)

If 4.61 g of N2 are made, what is the percent yield?

173
 1.4 Concentrations of Solutions

1.4.1 Solution
1.4.2 Molarity
1.4.3 Dissociation
1.4.4 Dilution
1.4.5 Stoichiometry Road Map
1.4.6 Stoichiometric Solutions
1.4.7 Concentration Expressions
1.4.8 Molality and Mole Fraction
1.4.9 Part Solute in Part Solution

174
 Solutions

• Homogeneous mixtures
composition may vary from one sample to another
appears to be one substance, though really contains
multiple materials
• Most homogeneous materials we encounter are
actually solutions
e.g., air and seawater
• Nature has a tendency toward spontaneous
mixing
generally, uniform mixing is more energetically
favorable
175
 Solutions

• When table salt is mixed with water, it seems to

disappear, or become a liquid – the mixture is
homogeneous
– the salt is still there, as you can tell from the taste, or
simply boiling away the water
• Homogeneous mixtures are called solutions
• The component of the solution that changes state is
called the solute
• The component that keeps its state is called the solvent
– if both components start in the same state, the major
component is the solvent

176
 Solutions
• Solutions have variable composition
• To describe a solution, you need to describe the
components and their relative amounts
• The terms dilute and concentrated can be used as
qualitative descriptions of the amount of solute in
solution
• Concentration = amount of solute in a given amount of
solution
– occasionally amount of solvent

177
 Concentration
• Qualitatively, solutions are often described as dilute or
concentrated
• Dilute solutions have a small amount of solute compared
to solvent
• Concentrated solutions have a large amount of solute
compared to solvent

178
 Molarity
• Moles of solute per 1 liter of solution
• Used because it describes how many molecules of solute
in each liter of solution

179
 Molarity
Example 35: Preparing 0.5 L of a 0.350 M nickel(II) nitrate
hexahydrate Solution
1 Calculate the mass of solid

Mass (g) = 0.500 L x 0.350 mol/L x 290.82 g

= 50.9 g Ni(NO3)3.6H2O

Weigh the solid needed.

2 Transfer the solid to a volumetric flask that

contains about half the final volume of solvent.

3 Dissolve the solid thoroughly by swirling.

4 Add solvent until the solution reaches its final

volume.

180
Example 36 : How would you prepare 250.0 mL of
a 1.00 M solution CuSO45 H2O(MM 249.69)?
Given: 250.0 mL solution
Find: mass CuSO4 5 H2O, g

Conceptual Plan: mL sol’n L sol’n mol CuSO4 g CuSO4

Relationships:

1.00 L sol’n = 1.00 mol; 1 mL = 0.001 L; 1 mol = 249.69 g

Solution:

Dissolve 62.4 g of CuSO4∙5H2O in enough water to total 250.0 mL

Check: the unit is correct, the magnitude seems
reasonable as the volume is ¼ of a liter
181
Example 37: Find the molarity of a solution that
has 25.5 g KBr dissolved in 1.75 L of solution
Given: 25.5 g KBr, 1.75 L solution
Find: molarity, M

Conceptual Plan:
g KBr mol KBr
M
Relationships: L sol’n
1 mol KBr = 119.00 g, M = moles/L
Solution:

Check:
because most solutions are between 0 and 18 M, the
answer makes sense
182
Example 38: How many liters of 0.125 M NaOH
contain 0.255 mol NaOH?
Given: 0.125 M NaOH, 0.255 mol NaOH
Find: liters, L

Conceptual Plan:
mol NaOH L sol’n
Relationships:
0.125 mol NaOH = 1 L solution

Solution:

Check:
because each L has only 0.125 mol NaOH, it makes
sense that 0.255 mol should require a little more than 2 L
183
Example 39 : Determine the mass of CaCl2
(MM = 110.98) in 1.75 L of 1.50 M solution
Given: 1.50 M CaCl2, 1.75 L
Find: mass CaCl , g
2

Conceptual Plan: L sol’n mol CaCl2 g CaCl2

Relationships:
1.50 mol CaCl2 = 1 L solution; 110.98 g CaCl2 = 1 mol

Solution:

Check:
because each L has 1.50 mol CaCl2, it makes sense
that 1.75 L should have almost 3 moles
184
 Dissociation
• The molarity of the ionic compound allows you to
determine the molarity of the dissolved ions
• CaCl2(aq) = Ca2+(aq) + 2 Cl−(aq)
• A 1.0 M CaCl2(aq) solution contains 1.0 moles of CaCl2 in
each liter of solution
– 1 L = 1.0 moles CaCl2, 2 L = 2.0 moles CaCl2
• Because each CaCl2 dissociates to give one Ca2+, a 1.0 M
CaCl2 solution is 1.0 M Ca2+
– 1 L = 1.0 moles Ca2+, 2 L = 2.0 moles Ca2+
• Because each CaCl2 dissociates to give 2 Cl−, a 1.0 M
CaCl2 solution is 2.0 M Cl−
– 1 L = 2.0 moles Cl−, 2 L = 4.0 moles Cl−

185
 Dilution
• Often, solutions are stored as concentrated stock
solutions
• To make solutions of lower concentrations from these
stock solutions, more solvent is added
– the amount of solute doesn’t change, just the volume of
solution
moles solute in solution 1 = moles solute in solution 2
• The concentrations and volumes of the stock and new
solutions are inversely proportional
Mconc∙Vconc = Mdil∙Vdil

186
Example 40 : To what volume should you dilute
0.200 L of 15.0 M NaOH to make 3.00 M NaOH?
Given: V1 = 0.200L, M1 = 15.0 M, M2 = 3.00 M
Find: V2, L

Conceptual Plan:
V1, M1, M2 V2

Relationships:
M1V1 = M2V2

Solution:

Check:
because the solution is diluted by a factor of 5, the volume
should increase by a factor of 5, and it does
187
 Example 41 : What is the concentration of a solution
prepared by diluting 45.0 mL of 8.25 M HNO3 to 135.0 mL?
Given: V1 = 45.0 mL, M1 = 8.25 M, V2 = 135.0 mL
Find: M2 , L

Conceptual Plan:
V1, M1, V2 M2

Relationships:
M1V1 = M2V2

Solution:

Check:
because the solution is diluted by a factor of 3, the
molarity should decrease by a factor of 3, and it does
188
Checkpoint 31
How would you prepare 200.0 mL of 0.25 M NaCl solution
from a 2.0 M solution?

Checkpoint 32
200.0 mL of 0.25 M NaCl solution , 100.0 mL of 0.20 M NaCl
solution and 300.0 mL of distilled water are mixed in 1000 mL
beaker. What is the final molarity of NaCl solution?

Checkpoint 33
A 200.0 cm3 sample of oxalic acid solution contains 8.584
g of H2C2O4 . 25.0 cm3 of this acid solution is withdrawn
and diluted to 500.0 cm3 by adding water in a 500–ml
volumetric flask. What is the molarity of the final solution?

189
Stoichiometry Road Map

190
 Stoichiometric Solution

• Because molarity relates the moles of solute to the liters of

solution, it can be used to convert between amount of
reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction

Example 42
3 Cu + 8 HNO3  3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2 NO + 4 H2O
In an experiment x grams of Cu reacted completely with 40 cm3 of 0.5
M HNO3 solution.
a) Calculate the value of x.
b) How many moles of NO will be formed in the above
reaction ? 191
 Stoichiometric Solution
Solution: Conceptual Plan

Vol, Molarity Mol HNO3 Mol Cu g Cu

HNO3 Mol = M x V Mol Cu = 3 g Cu = mol Cu x MM Cu
Mol HNO3 8

Relationships: MM Cu = 63.55 g/mol

(a) g Cu = (0.5 mol/L x 0.04 L)HNO3 x 3 mol Cu x 63.55 g

8 mol HNO3 1 mol
= 0.48 g

(b) Mol HNO3 Mol NO

Mol NO = 2 = 1
Mol HNO3 8 4

Mol NO formed = (0.5 x 0.04)mol HNO3 x 1 mol NO

4 mol HNO3
= 0.005 mol
192
Checkpoint 34

11.9 g of NH3 is produced when x grams of (NH4)2SO4

reacted completely in v cm3 of 2.5 M NaOH according to the
equation below :
(NH4)2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 + 2H2O + 2NH3
Calculate the values of x and v.

193
 Stoichiometric Solutions
Gas-Formation Reactions
When there are no gaseous reactants, the formation of an
insoluble or slightly soluble gas provides a driving forces for a
type of reaction that we call a gas-formation reaction.

Example 43: When excess of sulfuric acid reacts with x g

of zinc, 500 mL of hydrogen gas is evolved at stp.
Calculate the value of x

194
 Stoichiometric Solutions
Gas-Formation Reactions

Solution :
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

Mol of H2 = 500 mL » 0.5 dm3 x 1 mol = 0.022 mol

22.4 dm3

Mol of Zn = 0.022 mol x 65.39 g/mol = 1.44 g

195
 Stoichiometric Solutions
Gravimetric Analysis

 is an analytical technique based on the measurement of

mass.
 dissolve unknown substance in water and react it with
known substance to form participate ( techniques is applied to
ionic compounds
formation
isolation and drying
mass determination of a precipitate 196
Example 44
A 0.5662-g sample of an ionic compound containing chloride
ions and an unknown metal is dissolved in water and treated
with an excess of AgNO3. If 1.0882 g of AgCl precipitate
forms, what is the percent by mass of Cl in the original
compound?
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq)  AgCl (s) + NaNO3 (aq)

197
Checkpoint 35

If 30 mL of 0.150 M K3PO4 (aq) is added to 25.0 mL of

0.100 M of Ca(NO3)2, what is percent yield if only 2.450 g
of Ca3(PO4)2 (s) precipitate is formed.

Checkpoint 36
What volume of 0.150 M KCl is required to completely react
with 0.150 L of 0.175 M Pb(NO3)2 in the reaction
2 KCl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)  PbCl2(s) + 2 KNO3(aq)?

198
Checkpoint 37

If 1 dm3 sample of air containing carbon dioxide is passed

through aqueous calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2, 0.45 g of white
precipitated (CaCO3) is formed.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

Determine the volume of CO2 in the sample at stp.

199
Stoichiometric Solutions
Acid-Base Titration

200
Example 45 : How many milimeters (mL) of a
0.610 M NaOH solution are needed to neutralize
20.0 mL of 0.245 M H2SO4 solution?
2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)?
Let Molarity of H2SO4 = Ma, Molarity of NaOH = Mb
Volume of H2SO4 = Va, Volume of NaOH = Vb
Stoichiometry coeffient a, b = 2,1 for H2SO4, NaOH, resp.
Use the relatioship
MaVa = a
MbVb b
0.245 M x 20.0 mL = 1
0.610 M x Vb 2
Vb = 2 x 0.245 M x 20 mL = 16.1 mL
0.610 M

201
Stoichiometric Solutions
Redox Titration
Redox reactions involve the transfer of
electrons,

Titration between reducing agent

against oxidizing agent

The equivalence point is reached when

reducing agent is completely oxidized by
the oxidizing agent.
Two common oxidizing agents
MnO4-  Mn2+
Purple light pink

Cr2O72-  Cr3+
Orange yellow green
202
Example 46
A 16.42-mL volume of 0.1327 M KMnO4 solution is
needed to oxidize 25.00 mL of a FeSO4 solution in an
acidic medium. What is the concentration of the FeSO4
solution in molarity? The net ionic equation is
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+  Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O

Solution

203
204
Example 47
Iodate (V) ions react with acidified iodide ions as shown
below:
IO-3 + 5I- + 6H+  3I2 + 3H2O

The iodine released is then reacted with thiosulfate ions as

given below:
I2 + 2S2O32-  2I- + S4O62-

60 mL of 0.2 M iodate (V) ions reacted with excess acidified

iodide ions. If all the iodine liberated reacted with x mL of 0.4
M of thiosulfate ions, calculate the value of x

205
Moles of iodate (V) ions

IO3- = 0.2 x 60 = 0.012 mol

1000

Moles of iodine liberated is

1 mol IO3-  3 mol I2

If 0.012 mol IO3-  0.012 mol IO3- x 3 mol I2 = 0.036 mol

1 mol IO3-

1 mol I2 reacted with 2 mol S2O32-

Then, 0.036 mol I2 will react with  0.036 mol I2 X 2 mol S2O32- = 0.072 mol
1 mol I2

Molarity of S2O32- (x) is 0.072 mol x 1000 = 18 mL

0.4 mol/L

206
Checkpoint 38
43.8 mL of 0.107 M HCl is to neutralize 37.6 mL of Ba(OH)2
solution. What is the molarity of the base?
2 HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq)  BaCl2(aq) + 2 H2O(aq)

Checkpoint 39

Calculate the molarity of phosphoric acid, H3PO4 , if 40.0 cm3

of it requires 25.0 cm3 of 0.545 M potassium hydroxide, KOH
for its neutralization. Balance the equation below for the
neutralization reaction described above.
H3PO4 + KOH  K3PO4 + H2O
207
Checkpoint 40
A 0.5166 g of sample limonite (ore of iron) is dissolved in
acid and converted all ferric to ferrous ions.
Fe3+ → Fe2+

Then this solution is treated against with dichromate solution

requires 42.96 mL of 0.0213 M Cr2O72- to oxidized all Fe2+ to
Fe3+ .
6Fe2+ + Cr2O72- + 14H+ → 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

Calculate the percent of iron in limonite.

208
Checkpoint 41

Aluminium reacts with sulphuric acid to produce hydrogen

gas and aluminium sulphate.
2Al + 3H2SO4  Al2(SO4)3 + 3H2
If a reaction vessel contains 2.4 g of Al and 200 cm3 of 0.5M
H2SO4 ,
a) which compound is the limiting reactant?
b) How many moles of H2 can be produced?
c) How much of the excess reagent is left at the end of the
reaction?

209
Checkpoint 42
In one experiment x grams of CS2 is mixed with y grams of
NaOH. The reaction is represented by the unbalanced
equation below.
CS2 + NaOH  Na2CS3 + Na2CO3 + H2O
At the end of the reaction, 7.5 g of Na2CO3 is formed while
3.3 g of CS2 is left unreacted in the reaction vessel. All the
NaOH in the vessel is completely consumed.
a) Balance the above equation
b) Calculate the amount of CS2 (x grams) and NaOH (y
grams) added to the reaction vessel at the beginning of the
reaction.

210
 Concentrations Expressions

Expressing concentration in terms of:

1. Percent by Mass (w/w %)

2. Percent by Volume (v/v %)
3. Percent mass per volume (w/v %)
4. Molality (mol/kg)
5. Mole Fraction (Xa)

211
 Concentrations Expressions
Using Concentrations as
Conversion Factors
 Concentrations show the relationship between the amount
of solute and the amount of solvent

 12%(m/m) sugar(aq) means 12 g sugar  100 g solution

 or 12 kg sugar  100 kg solution; or 12 lbs.  100 lbs. solution
 5.5%(m/v) Ag in Hg means 5.5 g Ag  100 mL solution
 22%(v/v) alcohol(aq) means 22 mL EtOH  100 mL solution

 The concentration can then be used to convert the amount

of solute into the amount of solution, or vice- versa

212
Concentrations Expressions
Percent Concentration

213
 Concentrations Expressions
Mass Percent (% w/w )

 Concentrations show the relationship between the amount

of solute and the amount of solvent
– 12%(w/w) sugar solution: 12 g sugar per 100 g solution
or 12 kg sugar 1n 100 kg solution
– 22%(v/v) ethanol solution: 22 mL EtOH per 100 mL
solution

214
 Example 48 : What volume of 10.5% by mass soda
contains 78.5 g of sugar?
Density of the solution 1.04 g/mL
Given: 78.5 g sugar
Find: volume, mL
Conceptual g solute g sol’n mL sol’n
Plan:

Relationships: 100 g sol’n = 10.5 g sugar, 1 mL sol’n = 1.04 g

Solve:

Check: the unit is correct, the magnitude seems reasonable as the

mass of sugar  10% the volume of solution

215
 Molality and Mole Fraction
Molality
 Moles of solute per 1 kilogram of solvent
defined in terms of amount of solvent, not solution
like the others
 Does not vary with temperature
because based on masses, not volumes

216
 Molality and Mole Fraction
Mole Fraction, XA
 The mole fraction is the fraction of the moles of one
component in the total moles of all the components of the
solution
 Total of all the mole fractions in a solution = 1
 Unitless
 The mole percentage is the percentage of the moles of
one component in the total moles of all the components
of the solution
= mole fraction x 100%

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Example 49
Calculate the molarity and molality of a solution
prepared by mixing 17.2 g of C2H6O2 with 0.500
kg of H2O to make 515 mL of solution? What is
the mol fraction of C2H6O2 in the solution?
Solution: Conceptual Plan:

g C2H6O2 mol C2H6O2

M
mL sol’n L sol’n

M = mol/L, 1 mol C2H6O2 = 62.07 g, 1 mL = 0.001 L

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 0.2771
Molality   0.554 m or 0.554 mol kg1
0.5
0.5 x 1000
Mol H 2 O  mol  27.753 mol
18.016

Total mol = 0.2771 + 27.753 mol = 28.03 mol

0.2771
Χ C2 H6O2   9.89 x 10 3
28.03
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Checkpoint 43
A solution is made by dissolving 34.0 g of NH3 in 2.00 x 103
mL of water. Calculate the
a) molality of the solution
b) the mole fraction of NH3 in the solution
(MMNH3 = 17.04 g/mol, dH2O = 1.00 g/mL)

Checkpoint 44
(i) An aqueous solution consists of 6.55% by mass of glucose
(C6H12O6).
(ii) 6.2 M H2SO4(aq)
Calculate
a) Molarity and molality of solution (i)
b) Molality of solution (ii)
c) What is the mole fraction of the solute in both the
solutions.
(MMH2SO4 = 98.08 g/mol, dsol’n = 1.80 g/mL) 220
Checkpoint 45
1. Calculate the mass of solute and mass of solvent (water)
from each prepared solution

a). 125 g of 1.0% of NaNO3

b). 300 g of 0.115m of C2H6O2
c). 125 mL of 0.1M of NaNO3

2. Calculate the amount of water (in grams) that must be

added to 5.00g urea (NH2)2CO in preparation of a 16.2% by
mass solution

3. The density of a 2.45 M aqueous solution of methanol

(CH3OH) is 0.976 g/mL. What is the molality of the solution?
(MW= 32.04g)

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 Parts Solute in Parts Solution
 Parts can be measured by mass or volume
 Parts are generally measured in same units
 by mass in grams, kilogram, lbs, etc.
 by volume in mL, L, gallons, etc.
 mass and volume combined in grams and mL
 Percentage = parts of solute in every 100 parts solution
 if a solution is 0.9% by mass, then there are 0.9 grams of solute in
every 100 grams of solution
or 0.9 kg solute in every 100 kg solution
 Parts per million = parts of solute in every 1 million parts
solution
 if a solution is 36 ppm by volume, then there are 36 mL of solute in
1 million mL of solution
 1mg/L (1 mg of arsenic in 1L in drinking water or 1mg/Kg (1 mg of
Ca in 1 Kg of soil)
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Questions?

Thank You.

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