V.

THE COPPER AGE

 History of the Copper Age | 125

HISTORY OF THE COPPER AGE

(4500/4400–2600/2500 B.C.)
László András Horváth & Zsuzsanna M. Virág

One of the most controversial issues of European prehis- t

ory was whether there was an independent Copper Age, sep
arate from both the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. Hun- ga
rian prehistorians have from the very beginning consis- ten
tly used the term ‘Copper Age’, and even though the in- ter
nal subdivision of this period has been modified quite of- te
n, the independence of the period has never been chal- leng
ed. Ferenc Pulszky can be credited with the introduc- tion
of an independent Copper Age into Hungarian prehis- tori
c research. In his lecture presented at the VIIIth Prehis- to
ric and Anthropological Congress, held in Budapest in 187
6, he argued for the interpolation of a Copper Age into the
three-fold division of prehistory – Stone, Bronze and Iron
Age – on the basis of the then known forty-two copper arte Fig. 1. Grave goods from the Tiszapolgár–Basatanya cemetery. Early
facts. The first truly modern studies, based both on the exa Copper Age, Tiszapolgár culture
mination of copper artefacts, as well as on the excavation an
d publication of cemeteries, were written by Jenõ Hillebran changed significantly. The Atlantic climate, favourable for
d and Ferenc Tompa in the early decades of the 20th centu crop cultivation, was replaced by a cooler Subboreal climate
ry. János Banner, Ida Bognár-Kutzián and Pál Patay devote that also affected the environment. Spruce and poplar
d many studies to various aspects of the Cop- per Age, incl woods succeeded the earlier linden, elm, hazel and oak for-
uding the refinement of the internal chronol- ogy of this p ests, and extensive beech forests also appeared. This, in
eriod, as did Nándor Kalicz and István Torma in the 1960s turn, had an impact on both Neolithic economy and soci-
and 1970s. János Makkay, Pál Patay and István Ecsedy cont ety. In consequence of the environmental changes, a visible
ributed much to a better understanding of the eastern relati shift towards animal husbandry can be noted in subsistence
ons of this period, the beliefs of Copper Age communities a strategies, in spite of the fact that the invention of the
nd the metallurgy of the age, while Pál Raczky clarified ma plough and the use of cattle as draught animals can be re-
ny important issues of South-East Eu- ropean interrelation garded as significant innovations. The use of yokes, en-
s and the absolute chronology. As a re- sult, a fairly accurate abling the use of animal-drawn wheeled vehicles, made lo-
historical framework for the Hungar- ian Copper Age coul cal transportation and economy more efficient. These new
d be drawn up by the early 1980s. subsistence strategies led to the emergence of social dif-
In the last phase of the Neolithic, around the mid-5th m ferences that are reflected in the burials. Earlier prestige ar-
illennium B.C., the climate of the Carpathian Basin ticles indicating social status, made from various raw

Fig. 2. Vessels of the late Len-

gyel culture. Zalaszentbalázs,
Early Copper Age
126 The Copper Age

materials, were replaced by phase of the culture representing the Copper Age without
ones made of copper and any break (Fig. 2). Some villages continued their existence
gold. The conscious use of or were rebuilt in the immediate vicinity of the earlier set-
these two metals during the tlement. Changes can be noted in the pottery, although this
Copper Age gave rise to has more of a chronological, rather than a cultural signifi-
metallurgy on a truly indus- cance.
trial scale. The changes in Development took divergent paths during the transition
the economy and in lifeways from the Early to the Middle Age Copper Age (c. 4000
marked a new period, sepa- B.C.). On the testimony of the large cemeteries in the Great
rate from the Neolithic. Hungarian Plain and on its fringes, the Tiszapolgár culture
Although the environ- was succeeded by the Bodrogkeresztúr culture without a
mental changes affected the break (Fig. 3); in Transdanubia, however, a number of dif-
entire region, the transition ferences can be noted between the Lengyel and the ensuing
from the Neolithic to the Balaton–Lasinja culture. Although the archaeological re-
Copper Age differed in the cord does not suggest a complete population change, the
eastern and western half of appearance of southern, especially Balkanic cultural tradi-
the Carpathian Basin. In tions as opposed to the Central European traditions of the
the Tisza region, the envi- Lengyel culture, indicates deeper changes than in eastern
ronmental changes deep- Hungary. Local development only continued in the central
ened the economic and so- and, to a smaller extent, the northeastern areas of Hungary
cial crisis of the Tisza– where the Ludanice communities, direct descendants of the
Fig. 3. The characteristic “milk Herpály culture and this local Lengyel culture, maintained close ties with their
jug” of the Bodrogkeresztúr brought an end to the cen- neighbours.
culture. Pusztaistvánháza,
turies long unbroken devel- The Bodrogkeresztúr period marks the real floruit of the
Middle Copper Age
opment. The survival of Copper Age with its golden symbols of power and the heavy
certain elements of the ma- copper axes, many of them heavy to the point of being in-
terial culture and of various beliefs indicates the continued utile. Being rare and valuable prestige commodities, these
existence of the earlier population. Adapting to the copper and gold artefacts no doubt belonged to the high-
changed conditions, the loose settlement network of large status worldly or sacral leaders of a givencommunity.
tells and single-layer settlements of the Neolithic was re- Major changes can be noted at the end of the Middle
placed by a rather dense network of smaller settlements in Copper Age. Appearing on the western and northwestern
the Tiszapolgár culture of the Early Copper Age (Fig. 1). periphery of the Carpathian Basin contemporaneously with
The distribution of this culture more or less coincided the Balaton–Lasinja and Ludanice cultures, the Stroke Or-
with that of the preceding Neolithic cultures in the Tisza namented Pottery culture – so called after its distinctive
region, although smaller shifts can be demonstrated at the decorative technique – occupied the territory extending
beginning of the Copper Age. This period also saw the ap- from the eastern Alpine foreland to the Adriatic. Its expan-
pearance of the first gold ornaments and the first massive sion into the Tisza region was checked by the Hunyadiha-
copper implements and weapons. lom culture that succeeded the Bodrogkeresztúr culture.
Hardly any differences can be noted in the settlement This cultural complex emerged as a result of the arrival of
patterns of the Late Neolithic and the Early Copper Age in various eastern and southeastern population groups. The
Transdanubia. The classical phase of the Lengyel culture, number of settlements declined conspicuously in this pe-
falling into the Late Neolithic, was followed by the late riod, most likely the result of a significant population

Fig. 4. Clay wagon models

from Budakalász and
Szigetszentmárton. Late
Copper Age, Baden culture
 Settlements | 127

of the Kostolac groups on late Baden sites at the close of the

4th millennium B.C. The period named after this southern
population, arriving from the south along major waterways,
such as the Danube, was a brief episode in the Late Copper
Age.
The emergence of the Vuèedol culture at the beginning
of the 3rd millennium B.C., immediately preceding and
surviving into the Early Bronze Age, can be located to
Croatia. This culture was also distributed in southeastern
Transdanubia. The stratified settlements, rich metallurgy
Fig. 5. Copper disc and unique pottery of this culture set it apart from the other
from Zalavár–Basasziget. Copper Age cultures of the region.
Middle Copper Age, The absolute chronology of the Copper Age of the Car-
Balaton–Lasinja culture pathian Basin is based on calibrated radiocarbon dates. The
Early Copper Age can be dated between 4500/4400– 4000
decrease. These two cultures, both new arrivals to the Car- B.C., the Middle Copper Age between 4000–3600/ 3500
pathian Basin, formed the basis of a process of unifor- B.C., while the Late Copper Age between 3600/3500–
mization that led to the emergence of the Baden culture in 2600/2500 B.C. This chronology is also supported by the
the Late Copper Age. The transition between the two is evidence from cross-dating and traditional archaeological
represented by the Protoboleráz horizon, a brief, but comparisons. One case in point is the copper disc found at
marked period in the Hungarian Copper Age. Major south- the Zalavár site of the Balaton–Lasinja culture – similar
ern and eastern impacts can be noted in the Carpathian Ba- discs were still popular during the Stroke Ornamented Pot-
sin during this period, spanning no more than a few genera- tery period (Fig. 4). A similar disc was brought to light near
tions. The blend of external influences and local traditions, Lake Boden on a settlement that was dated to the early 4th
some going back for many millennia, eventually led to the millennium using dendrochronology. This date supports
emergence of an unusually large cultural complex. The the calibrated radiocarbon dates for the Middle Copper Age
unity of material and spiritual culture is especially conspicu- cultures of the Carpathian Basin.
ous in the Boleráz group, representing the early phase of
the Baden culture. The nature of the cultural force that
forged a uniform culture throughout the entire Carpathian
Basin from the strongly different regional groups remains
SETTLEMENTS
unknown. Neither is it clear to what extent the climatic Zsuzsanna M. Virág & Mária Bondár
change, bringing a wetter and, presumably, cooler climate
at the very beginning of the Baden period, played a role in Our knowledge of Copper Age settlements has been greatly
these changes. The classical Baden phase was marked by the enriched by the large-scale excavations conducted over the
disintegration of the initial unity and the appearance of a past few years. This is especially true of Transdanubia,
colourful patchwork of regional Baden groups. This period where there is now evidence for above-ground houses (Fig.
saw the appearance of four wheeled vehicles of eastern ori- 6). These new finds have modified earlier views on the use
gin that brought a revolutionary change in transportation of pit-houses and suggest that the pits provided with
(Fig. 4). The resurgence of metallurgy, disrupted at the end
of the Middle Copper Age, can also be noted. Although the Fig. 6. Aerial photo showing the outlines of Early and Middle Copper
internal development of the Baden culture is fairly well Age houses.Gyõr–Szabadrétdomb
known, its close and its relation to the Early Bronze Age is
still unclear. There is no evidence that this unprecedented
development came to a sudden and drasticend.
Steppean Kurgan groups began infiltrating the eastern
half of the Carpathian Basin during the Baden period, in the
later 4th millennium B.C. At present, only the burials of the
Kurgan culture are known: the smaller and larger burial
mounds – called kurgans – dotting the Great Hungarian
Plain usually contain the burials of one or several members
of a community. The archaeological record indicates the
peaceful coexistence of the Baden and Kurgan communi-
ties. It seems likely that these Kurgan groups played a role
in the emergence of the Early Bronze Age.
Asimilar peaceful coexistence can be assumed in the case
128 The Copper Age

Fig. 7. Exvated houses from the Middle Copper Age settlement at Fig. 8. Reconstruction of a Middle Copper Age house. Zalavár–Basa-
Zalavár–Basasziget. Balaton–Lasinja culture sziget, Balaton–Lasinja culture

hearths or ovens were not necessarily residential structures, left few traces in the archaeological record. In
but served other purposes. Transdanubia, however, settlements were established in lo-
Compared to the Early Copper Age, a dense settlement cations with a favourable environment near water; these
network covered Transdanubia in the Middle Copper Age. settlements often lay quite close to each other and some had
In contrast, only a few Bodrogkeresztúr settlements are apparently been occupied over a longer period of time as
known from the Tisza region. The reason for this diver- shown by the abundance of finds. The remains of houses
gence can most likely be sought in the nature of the subsis- erected around a framework of massive timbers also suggest
tence strategies adopted by these two populations. The the longer occupation of these sites.
stockbreeding communities in the Tisza region had an es- Most settlements were established on low islands or pen-
sentially mobile lifestyle and the small, temporary campsites insulas that were especially suited to occupation in dry
weather. Much more is known about the settlements of the
Fig. 9. Map of the excavated section of the Middle Copper Age Early and Middle Copper Age in Transdanubia owing to
settlement at Zalavár–Basasziget. Balaton–Lasinja culture recent investigations.
The almost completely excavated Middle Copper Age
settlement at Zalavár–Basasziget, sited on a small peninsula
extending into the marshland of the Little Balaton, covered
an estimated 5000 m2 and can be assigned to the Balaton–
Lasinja culture. The house remains, the refuse pits and the
clay extraction pits indicate a continuous occupation. The
settlement had two to four contemporaneous houses during
the various occupation phases (Figs7–9).
The sites investigated around Gyõr in the Hanság
marshland offer a similar picture. The Middle Copper Age
communities in this area lived in small hamlets with a few
houses; these sites covered no more than 1–2 hectares.
Scattered around the houses were storage bins and clay ex-
traction pits that were eventually filled with refuse.
The one or two-roomed houses were 7 m wide on the av-
erage, their length often reached 20 m, although shorter
houses about 10 m long were also quite frequent. The up-
right timbers reinforcing the walls and supporting the roof
structure were set into a foundation trench or, more rarely,
into a posthole. The use-life of these settlements was deter-
mined by a subsistence strategy based on animal husbandry.
In contrast to the more briefly occupied settlements, the
sites with massive timber structures can be regarded as
more permanent settlements, although judging from the
 Early metallurgy in the Carpathian Basin | 129

finds uncovered on these sites, they were not particularly

long-lived either. One unusual phenomenon is that the
Ludanice communities of the early phase of the Middle
Copper Age also settled in caves in the Budapest region and
northeastern Transdanubia.
In the later phase of the Middle Copper Age, the num-
ber of settlements decreased in Transdanubia. The tempo-
rary settlements of this loose settlement network are
marked by scattered pits. In contrast to the Tisza region,
where village-like settlements with several houses have
been uncovered, no houses have yet been found in Trans-
danubia from this period. The most thoroughly investi-
gated site is the Tiszalúc settlement of the Hunyadihalom
culture in the Great Hungarian Plain. The core of the set- Fig. 11. Oven plastered with pottery sherds. Sármellék–Égenföld,
tlement, a roughly 150 m by 100 m large area, was enclosed Late Copper Age, Baden culture
by a palisade fence of closely spaced posts set into a founda-
tion trench. The houses in this protected area had been re- ronments, ranging from the plainland to upland locations,
newed several times; the pits yielded a varied assemblage of as well as settlements near waterways and in caves. Beside
pottery fragments and animal bones, mainly from cattle. small, temporary campsites, a number of several hectares
The timber framed, two-roomed houses measured 10–12 large villages have also been identified (for example at
m by 6–7 m. The archaeological record indicates that there Pilismarót–Szobi rév). The excavations on Baden sites
were twenty to twenty-two houses during one occupation brought to light hearths plastered with pebbles and sherds,
phase (Fig. 10). smaller ovens, as well as storage bins and refuse pits (Fig.
The unification process affecting the entire Carpathian 11). The archaeological record only offers a par- tial
Basin during the Late Copper Age is also reflected in the picture of the residential buildings since burnt daub
settlements. The over 1600 sites of the Baden culture fragments (clay mixed with vegetal remains) are all that
from Hungary reflect a relatively dense settlement net- survived of the one-time houses. The archaeological re-
work. The Baden communities settled in a variety of envi- mains suggest that these buildings had terre pisé walls or
were log cabins.
Fig. 10. Map of the excavated section of the Middle Copper Age The late Baden settlements established near larger lakes
settlement at Tiszalúc–Sarkadpuszta. Hunyadihalom culture and waterways indicate a contemporary occupation by
Kostolac communities. The location of these settlements
was no doubt influenced by the importance of fishing in
the subsistence and the importance of waterways for trans-
portation and communication. The briefly occupied Kos-
tolac settlements had temporary, hut-like structures. The
Baden population often established protected, fortified
settlements in upland locations in northeastern Hungary
during this late phase. The several meters high occupation
deposits indicate a longer occupation. Some upland sites,
such as Salgótarján–Pécskõ, were inhabited up to the Early
Bronze Age. The stratified settlements of the Vuèedol cul-
ture, surviving into the Early Bronze Age, appeared at
roughly the same time in the southwestern part of the
Carpathian Basin.

EARLY METALLURGY IN THE

CARPATHIAN BASIN
Zsuzsanna M. Virág

The earliest appearance of metals and metal artefacts, as

well as lumps of worked copper preceded the Copper Age
proper. The first use of copper can already be observed in
the Neolithic. It would appear that Neolithic man began
130 The Copper Age

collecting nuggets of malachite-azurite and native represented a special value. The melting point of
copper owing to their attractive appearance and these two metals is similar (1083 °C and 1063 °C)
colour in order to experiment with this unusual raw and their contemporaneous utilization can in part be
material and to manufacture various prestige items attributed to the similar techniques necessary for
– such as small beads, pins, rings, armrings – their processing. There is little evidence for the use
signalling the special status of their wearer. The of gold before the Copper Age; articles of gold only
occasional use of copper in the early phases of the appear in greater number from the Early Copper
Neolithic was by the earlier 5th millen- Age, usually from burials and hoards. The conti-
nium B.C. replaced by a more con- nuity of Late Neolithic traditions is in-
scious usage, as shown by the growing dicated by the gold discs that imi-
number of copper finds recovered from tated earlier perforated shell orna-
the settlements and burials of the ments. Beside their value expressed
Tisza–Herpály–Csõszhalom and Len- in the material itself, these gold ar-
gyel cultures. The various small articles made ticles were also vested with a symbolic
from native copper contained very little of this meaning. Most prehistorians agree that the gold
raw material and their form essentially imitated discs, with two small embossed knobs and a large
various stone, shell and bone ornaments and central perforation, are stylized representations of
artefacts. Most of these copper articles were made the female body (cp. Fig. 14).
by hammering, although rare instances of copper There is only meagre evidence for the use of gold
smelting have also been documented from this in the early phase of the Hungarian CopperAge. A
period (Zengõvárkony, Berettyóúj- falu– number of burials in a contemporaneous ceme-
Herpály). tery in eastern Slovakia yielded a variety of gold
As a result of this centuries long experi- pendants and copper axes. Agold hoard is also
mentation with copper, a genuine and well known from Hungary: found at Hencida, its
organized copper metallurgy emerged by the ornaments evoke the types and traditions of
Early Copper Age (4500/4400 B.C.). South-East European metallurgy.
The technology of smelting copper from its The copper deposits exploited during the
ores was discovered, together with the melting of Copper Age lay in the Mátra Mountains (Recsk), in
the smelted metal for casting, leading to the processing of the Mecsek Mountains, in the Zemplén Mountains
copper ores on a large scale and the mass production and (Telkibánya) and in the Rudabánya area (Fig. 13).
widespread use of heavy copper implements. The exploita- Some of these were probably already known in the Neolithic.
tion of the rich copper deposits in the Carpathian Basin and Although the source of the gold used for the manufacture of
the northern Balkans gave rise to a flourishing South-East gold articles has not been identified yet, the known gold de-
European copper metallurgy. The distinctive products of posits of the Carpathian Basin suggest that these should be
this metallurgy, axe-adzes and various axes, appeared dur- sought in the Transylvanian Ore Mountains, as well as in the
ing the Early Copper Age Tiszapolgár culture. These were mining areas of the Selmec and Körmöc Mountains, where
manufactured at several locations throughout South-East the auriferous ores could be mined from surface deposits.
Europe, where the smelting procedures necessary for this Gold was perhaps also panned from the Körös, the Maros,
early metallurgy were known and practiced. This is also the Szamos and the Aranyosrivers.
confirmed by the presence of pottery kilns in which gra-
phitic pottery needing a high firing temperature was pro-
duced. The sudden upswing of copper metallurgy also
wrought changes in the fabric of society. The copper imple-
ments were not simply utilitarian articles – being commodi-
ties with a specific value, they were often a measure of
wealth, signalling the power and status of their owner. It
has been suggested that these copper implements perhaps
also had a sacral function (Fig. 12).
The Copper Age also saw the appearance of gold, most
likely as a result of the rather frequent joint occurrence of
copper and gold; the various objects made from this metal

Fig. 12. Hoard from Szeged–Szillér. Early Copper Age, Tiszapolgár

culture

Fig. 13. Native copper from Rudabánya

 Early metallurgy in the Carpathian Basin | 131

discs. These large ornaments, often with a diameter of 15

cm, are known from various hoards (Tiszaszõlõs and
Mojgrád in Transylvania). The wear traces suggest that
they were breast ornaments strung onto some kind of cord.
Their smaller variants were recovered from burials, where
they were usually found lying by either side of the skull,
suggesting that they had perhaps ornamented a headdress
(Fig. 14). Other gold ornaments include small rods and
pins, small tubes, wire spirals, rings with overlapping ter-
minals, biconical beads and conical ornaments of sheet
gold. Metallurgy spread to the Alpine region at this time,
although it was practiced on a more modest scale in that
area. The massive copper implements and the copper or-
naments were both produced in local workshops. Raw ma-
terial for the emerging eastern Alpine metallurgy was no
doubt procured from the rich copper and gold deposits in
Carinthia and the Salzburg region.
In the western half of the Carpathian Basin, the most dis-
Fig. 14. Gold pendants and tubes from the Middle Copper Age tinctive Balaton–Lasinja metal products were the large
cemeteries of Jászladány and Magyarhomorog. Bodrogkeresztúr gold, silver and copper discs ornamented with three em-
culture bossed knobs and répoussé work. These metal discs, found
mainly in hoards, were worn as breast ornaments. Even
The unbroken continuity of metallurgy during the though these discs differ from the ones found east of the
florescence of the Hungarian Copper Age (4000–3600/ Danube, their symbolism suggests that some similar mean-
3500 B.C.) meant that the use of copper and gold became ing was attached to them (Fig. 15). The gold pendant found
truly widespread. During the Bodrogkeresztúr period, the at Hatvan shows a unique blend of these two metalworking
eastern half of the Carpathian Basin was part of the South- traditions (Fig. 16).
East European metallurgical province, extending from The decline of metallurgy in the later phase of the Mid-
eastern Slovakia to Greece. The production of heavy cop- dle Copper Age is reflected by the scarcity of metal finds in
per implements continued and it is also possible that the the Hunyadihalom culture of the Tisza region and the
manufacturing centres were relocated to the Carpathian Stroke Ornamented Pottery culture of Transdanubia. This
Basin. One new type among the massive implements is a period was characterized by small metal articles with a neg-
heavy axe. The manufacture of gold articles also contin- ligible ore content and it seems likely that some of the ear-
ued. One distinctive product of eastern Carpathian and lier workshops in which heavy copper implements had been
South-East European gold metallurgy was the tabbed pen- mass-produced ceased their turn-out of these products.
dant with a perforated circular lower part and a small tab There is evidence for metalworking on the village level in
for suspension, whose form evokes the Early Copper Age Transdanubia: moulds and crucibles containing copper slag

Fig. 15. Gold discs. Csáford, early phase of the Middle Copper Age, Balaton–Lasinja culture

Fig. 16. Large gold pendant. Hatvan, Middle Copper Age, Bodrogkeresztúr culture
132 The Copper Age

COPPER AGE RELIGION AND BELIEFS

(cemeteries, cult places, art)
Eszter Bánffy, Mária Bondár &
Zsuzsanna M. Virág

The changes in the later half of the 5th millennium B.C.,

marking the advent of the Copper Age, also influenced reli-
gious beliefs. In spite of the survival of some earlier beliefs,
the finds that can be associated with religion testify to sub-
stantial changes.
One of the most important indications of this change is
the transformation of funerary practices following the
abandonment of the large, permanent settlements. The
small, briefly occupied Copper Age settlements could not
serve as an adequate resting place for the deceased. This
Fig. 17. Crucible and copper ornaments. Zalavár–Mekenye, late phase led to the emergence of independent cemeteries, in which
of the Middle Copper Age, Stroke Ornamented Pottery culture the burials were arranged into rows. Cemeteries, rather
than settlements, became the symbol of permanence and
have been found on several settlements of the Stroke Orna- the survival of the community. Many large cemeteries that
mented Pottery culture at Zalavár, Bak and Pusztaszent- had been established in the Early Copper Age were still in
lászló (Fig. 17). use during the Bodrogkeresztúr period of the Middle Cop-
Aconspicuous decline of copper metallurgy and copper per Age (Tiszapolgár–Basatanya, Magyarhomorog Tisza-
finds can be noted in the Baden period (Late Copper Age, valk–Tetes).
3600/3500–2800/2700 B.C.). Gold articles also disappeared. In contrast to the Tisza region, a different attitude to-
The decline of the flourishing South-East European metal- wards the deceased can be noted in Transdanubia, where
lurgy is usually attributed to the arrival of various groups hardly any burial grounds are known from the Early and
from Eastern Europe and the north Pontic steppe,as a result Middle Copper Age. The few solitary graves and grave
of which the trade and cultural relations between the various groups from the Ludanice distribution indicate the survival
metallurgical workshops were disrupted. To this we may of inhumation. The burials found on settlements preserved
perhaps add the exhaustion of the surface ore deposits in the many Neolithic traditions.
Carpathian Basin. The drop in the number of copper arti- The treatment of the deceased is in many cases an ade-
cles during the Baden period can perhaps also be as- quate reflection of the society of the living and, at the
sociated with changes in the attitude towards the same time, it also reveals much about the commu-
social and economic role of copper and it ispossi- nity’s beliefs concerning the afterworld. In the
ble that the accumulation of copper articles lost cemeteries of the Tisza region, the deceased were
its former significance. Copper finds, such as laid to rest in a contracted position on their side
breast ornaments, spiral armrings, neckrings and and provided with various articles that were be-
diadems, are rare over the entire, rather ex- lieved to be necessary in the afterworld. Multiple
tensive Baden distribution; these copper arti- burials were also quite frequent. Copper weapons
cles were probably insignia of power or per- and long stone knives were laid beside the mens’
sonal ornaments of high status individuals, or skulls, while women were usually provided with
perhaps the paraphernalia of rituals. Copper pottery vessels and copper ornaments, as well as small
daggers were also rare (Fig. 18). stone and bone implements. The belts strung of
Aside from a range of new copper types indi- beads (Fig. 19) were part of the female costume, as
cating eastern connections, the simple copper beads were gold pendants that were fastened onto
and rings from the burials and the small copper awls headbands and worn by high status individuals (cp.
from settlements were no doubt local products. The Fig. 14). Boar mandibles were only recovered from
crucibles found on sites in the Mecsek Mountain male burials. The richness of the grave goods from a
s(Lánycsók) and eastern Slavo- nia indicate the few male and female burials exceeds by far that of the
continuity of local metallurgy, al- though on a much average grave: the reflection of social differences in
smaller scale. The Baden period also saw the use of burials can already be noted at the end of the Neo-
new raw materials – provenance studies indicate the lithic. Gold articles were probably acquired by high
use of arsenic copper for the pro- duction of metal
articles that had earlier only been used in the east and Fig. 18. Copper dagger. Sármellék, Late Copper Age,
in the Alpine region. Baden culture
 Copper Age religion and beliefs | 133

stone that was practically inutile. The omphalos (central

place, centre of the universe), the body of the boy still not
entirely divorced from the world of the ancestors and the
symbolic grinding stone are all elements well known from
various Neolithic sacrificial assemblages.
Enclosures were also built during the Early and Middle
Copper Age. A huge oval enclosure was identified at Bala-
tonmagyaród, a site dated to the latest phase of the Lengyel
culture extending into the Copper Age (c. 4300 B.C.); the
enclosure ditch reflects the continuity of Central European
Neolithic traditions. One of the gates of this enclosure was
also excavated (Figs. 21–22).
Lying farther to the east, a Middle Copper Age enclo-
sure uncovered near Füzesabony is perhaps even more sig-
nificant. An enclosure of two concentric, slightly oval
ditches was identified at Füzesabony–Pusztaszikszó. The
width of the two V sectioned ditches was a mere 50 cm,
suggesting that they could hardly have been defensive in
nature (Figs. 23–24). The enclosure was interrupted by a
gate on the southern side. A row of heavy posts was aligned
along the inner ditch – these can perhaps be interpreted as a
row of columns resembling the slightly later structures of
massive stone blocks, such as the one at Stonehenge. The
most important area of the site was again the ‘navel’, the
centre of the area enclosed by the ditches, where an almost
5 m deep sacrificial pit was found. Intact vessels and animal
Fig. 19. Middle Copper Age female burial, with a multiple string of bones, the remains of meat offerings, were deposited into
stone beads around the waist. Szihalom–Pamlényi-tábla, the pit during the periodically repeated rituals. An intact,
Bodrogkeresztúr culture articulate goat skeleton, most likely the offering presented
Key: 1–7. vessels, 8. animal bone, 9. string of beads during the consecration rite, lay on the floor of the pit. The
most intriguing aspect of the enclosure and its finds is that
status individuals only – this increased the value of gold and, even though the Füzesabony site lies in the Bodrogke-
at the same time, it enhanced its role as marking social sta- resztúr distribution, the enclosure has a distinctly Central
tus. The possession of gold articles was also important for European ancestry, and the finds too have more in common
the living and gold articles were no doubt part of the para- with the cultures succeeding
phernalia used in various rituals and ceremonies. the Lengyel complex than
The gold hoards from Hencida, Tiszaszõlõs and Csá- with the Bodrogkeresztúr
ford also indicate the role of gold in Copper Age society. culture.
The gold discs, stylized female depictions, are important A similar sacrificial site or
relics of human representations in an age when these de- cult place was uncovered at
clined significantly (cp. Figs. 14–16). There are very few Szarvas; the finds suggest
idols made from clay or other materials from this period. that this site was the scene of
Their buxom form recalls the traditions of Neolithic stat- bloody offerings.
uettes (Fig. 20). The Late Copper Age Ba-
The continuity between Neolithic and Copper Age be- den period shows a colourful
liefs is also indicated by a number of buildings and other variety of beliefs based on
phenomena that can be associated with cults and rituals. In both local traditions and cul-
the Neolithic, these were usually performed within the set- tural influences from other
tlement, while in the Early Copper Age, special cult places, culture provinces. Similarly
entirely separate from the settlement, also appeared, paral- to the earlier phases of the
lel to the emergence of independent cemeteries. The sacri- Copper Age, the parapher-
ficial pit too survived into the Copper Age as shown by a rit- nalia of rituals were for the
ual child burial from the Little Balaton region dating to the
Middle Copper Age. The pit with an omphalos-like floor un- Fig. 20. Clay idol. Tiszafüred, later
covered at Balatonmagyaród contained the skeleton of a 5– phase of the Middle Copper Age,
6 years old boy, provided with a few vessels and a grinding Hunyadihalom culture
134 The Copper Age

Lake
Balaton

Fig. 21. Groundplan of an Early Copper Age enclosure. Fig. 23. Aerial view of a Middle Copper Age enclosure during
Balatonmagyaród–Hídvégpuszta, late Lengyel culture excavation. Füzesabony–Pusztaszikszó, Ludanice culture

Fig. 22. Excavated section of the Balatonmagyaród enclosure, with a Fig. 24. Plan of the excavated section of the enclosure. Füzesabony–
section showing the infilllevels Pusztaszikszó, Middle Copper Age, Ludanice culture
 Copper Age religion and beliefs | 135

greater part made from perishable materials. The different types of representations – such as
cult objects include anthropomorphic urns and the face pots and idols – of Neolithic and
the flat, headless, female statuettes of clay (Fig. Copper Age small sculpture were in es- sence
25), found throughout the entire Baden territory. the expressions of the same set of be- liefs.
Probably broken as part of a ritual, the idols were The symbolism of fertility and femi- ninity,
thrown into the refuse pits of the settlements. the association of women with the concept of
Some sites – such as Gyõr– Szabadrétdomb and birth and death, as well as rebirth, was at least
Tököl – yielded an unusually high number of three thousand years old by the Baden period.
idols, while only a few were brought to light at Beside the cremation of their dead, the
others, such as Pilismarót. The clay mask found at Baden communities also practiced inhuma-
Balatonõszöd, a unique find from this period, was tion. The deceased were laid to rest in burial
probably used during rituals (Fig. 26). grounds separate from the settlements. In ad-
In contrast to the earlier sporadic occur- dition to small burial grounds containing no
rences, the custom of cremation became more more than ten to twelve graves, large ceme-
widespread in the Baden period, a practice that teries used over a longer period of time are
can no doubt be associated with the belief in also known. At the same time, some individu-
the cleansing properties of fire. In the cemetery als were buried in or very near to the settle-
at Pilismarót–Basaharc, containing a total of Fig. 25. Headless idol. ment; the reason for this practice is not
110 burials, the ashes of the deceased werescat- Zamárdi, Late Copper Age, known.
Boleráz group
tered on the ground and the vessels used in the Mass graves containing both regularly in-
funerary rite were placed beside them. A mound of flat terred individuals and skeletons suggesting that the corpses
stones was raised above the grave at the end of the burial rit- had been simply thrown into the pit have also been found.
ual (Fig. 27). In some cases the ashes were collected and The reason for these mass graves remains unknown: per-
placed inside an urn. Quite unique anthropomorphic urns haps they are indications of an illness or a plague that led to
were found at Ózd–Center; their faces recall the depictions the more or less simultaneous death of several members of
on the anthropomorphic vessels from Troy, even though the community (Fig. 28).
we now know that the Ózd urns predate the latter (Fig. 29). The largest cemetery of the Baden culture, containing a
Comparable vessels have been found at a number of other total of 437 burials, was uncovered at Budakalász. The earli-
sites in the region, for example at Méhi (Vèelince, Slovakia), est burials in the cemetery, used for an estimated two hun-
where one of the burials yielded an urn modelled on the fe- dred years, were cremation burials. After the burial of the
male body and a small female statuette, suggesting that the ashes, the graves were covered with stones. Stones werealso

Fig. 26. Clay mask, modelled on the human face. Balatonõszöd–Temetõdûlõ, Late Copper Age, Baden culture
136 The Copper Age

Fig. 27. Late Copper Age grave with stone packing. The discoloured Fig. 28. Mass grave from a Late Copper Age settlement. Sármellék–
patch of the grave pit can be seen beside the stones. Pilismarót–Basa- Égenföld, Baden culture
harc, Boleráz group

thrown into inhumation burials as part of the burial rite. The the Carpathian Basin. These steppean nomadic communi-
separate, smaller grave groups can perhaps be interpreted as ties lived peacefully with the local Copper Age population
the burials of one family. Powerful symbols of social cohe- of the Tisza region. The Baden communities apparently
sion, the burial grounds containing the remains of the ances- adopted the custom of erecting stone grave markers (steles)
tors were revered as sacred places by later generations. from these eastern groups: the oldest stone stele from Hun-
These burial grounds contained not only human re- gary, found at Mezõcsát, was no doubt erected to protect
mains, but also a wide range of pottery, tools, implements the entire cemetery. This almost two meters high stele was
and ornaments, as well as animal remains. The clay wagon found in the Great Hungarian Plain, a region poor in stone
models used as ceremonial vessels, such as the ones found at resources (Fig. 30). The transportation of this heavy stone
Budakalász and Szigetszentmárton, no doubt had a unique from the Northern Mountain Range called for the con-
function (cp. Fig. 4). Cattle were also revered in some form certed activity of many individuals even if we assume the use
as shown by the cattle burials, found both on settlements of wheeled wagons.
and in cemeteries, where they The Kurgan people often buried their dead in Baden
were buried either alongside their cemeteries, indicating the joint use and, also, the reverence
owners or in separate graves. One of burial grounds as sacred areas. The grave
of the graves in the Budakalász pit under the burial mound (kur-
cemetery contained the bodies of a gan) was usually covered with
man and a woman, as well as two wooden planks; the grave goods
cattle skeletons; the position of the included carpets, furs and textiles
human and animal skeletons sug- (Figs 31–32). The presence of red
gested that a wooden cart had ochre in these burials can also be
probably also been placed into related to religious beliefs.
the grave. It seems likely that The colour red had a special
only high status individuals meaning in Copper Age be-
had the right to take these liefs; its use suggests that the
valuable animals with them to deceased were symbolically
the afterworld. restored to life before depart-
At the close of the Copper Age, ing to the afterworld.
we witness the appearance of
certain finds reflecting beliefs that Fig. 29. Anthropomorphic urns.
can be associated with the appear- Ózd–Center, Late Copper Age,
ance of eastern, steppean groups in Baden culture
 Copper Age religion and beliefs | 137

Fig. 30. Stone stele, during

excavation. Mezõcsát, Late
Copper Age, Baden culture

Fig. 31. Burial mound (kurgan), during excavation. Kétegyháza,

Late Copper Age

Fig. 32. Excavation drawing of a kurgan burial. Kétegyháza, Late

Copper Age