Microwave Notes
Microwave Notes
Microwave Notes
MICROWAVE TUBES
OUTLINE
1. Introduction of Microwaves
2. High frequency limitation of
conventional tubes
3. Types of Microwave tubes
4. Reflex klystron-Mechanism of operation
5. Mode of oscillation
6. Power output and Efficiency
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
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Microwaves
Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves
wavelengths ranging from few cm to mm
frequencies ranging from 1GHz to 1000 GHz (1 GHz = 10 9 Hz)
Advantage
Power requirement is very less compared to LF signals
Larger Bandwidth : The band width of microwaves is larger than the low
frequency signals - more information can be transmitted using single
carrier
For example, the microwaves extending from = 1 cm - = 10 cm
(i.e) from 30,000 MHz – 3000 MHz, this region has a bandwidth of
27,000 MHz.
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Applications Of Microwaves
Microwaves have a wide range of applications in
modern technology, which are listed below
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3.Commercial and industrial applications
Microwave oven
Drying machines – textile, food and paper industry for
drying clothes, potato chips, printed matters etc.
Food process industry – Precooling / cooking,
pasteurization / sterility, hat frozen / refrigerated precooled
meats, roasting of food grains / beans.
Rubber industry / plastics / chemical / forest product
industries
Mining / public works, breaking rocks, tunnel boring,
drying / breaking up concrete, breaking up coal seams,
curing of cement.
Drying inks / drying textiles, drying / sterilizing grains,
drying / sterilizing pharmaceuticals, leather, tobacco,
power transmission.
Biomedical Applications ( diagnostic / therapeutic ) –
diathermy for localized superficial heating, deep
electromagnetic heating for treatment of cancer,
hyperthermia ( local, regional or whole body for cancer
therapy).
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Other Applications
4. Identifying objects or personnel by non – contact
method.
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High Frequency Limitations of
Conventional Tubes
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Contd..
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Lead inductance effect:
Lead or stray inductance are effectively in parallel within the device with the inter
electrode capacitance. Inductive reactance is given by:
XL=2 π f L
As the frequency increases, the effective reactance of the circuit also increases.
This effect raise the frequency limit to the device.
The inductance of cathode lead is common to both grid and plate circuits. This provides a
path for degenerative feedback which reduces the overall efficiency of the circuit.
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Transit time
Transit time is the time required for electrons to travel from the cathode to the plate. At
low frequency, the transit time is very negligible. But, however at higher frequencies,
transit time becomes an appreciable portion of a signal cycle which results in decrease in
efficiency of device.
4) Gain bandwidth product
Gain bandwidth product is independent of frequency. So for a given tube higher gain can
be only obtained at the expense of narrower bandwidth.
5) Skin effect
This effect is introduced at higher frequencies. Due to it, the current flows from the
small sectional area to the surface of the device. Also at higher frequencies, resistance of
conductor increases due to which the there are losses.
R=ρl( √f)
6) Dielectric loss
Dielectric material is generally different silicon plastic encapsulation materials used in
microwave devices. At higher frequencies the losses due to these materials are also
prominent.
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Solution to this problem??
is
Microwave tubes
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Microwave Tubes
Klystron
Traveling Wave Tube
Magnetron
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REFLEX KLYSTRON
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Reflex Klystron oscillator
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Mechanism of operation
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Mechanism of operation
The electrons
‘a’ which encountered the positive half cycle of the RF field in
the cavity gap d will be accelerated,
‘b’ which encountered zero RF field will pass with unchanged
original velocity, and
‘c’ which encountered the negative half cycle will be
decelerated on entering the repeller space.
All these velocity modulated electrons will be repelled back to
the cavity by the repeller due to the negative potential.
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Mechanism of operation
The repeller distance L and the repeller voltage can be
adjusted to receive all the electrons at a same time on the
positive peak of the cavity RF cycle.
Thus the velocity modulated electrons are bunched together
and lose their kinetic energy when they encounter
the positive peak of the cavity RF field.
This loss of energy is transferred to the cavity to conserve
total power.
When power delivered by the electrons is equal to the power
loss in the cavity- Microwave oscillation is started
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Mode of Oscillation
These bunched electrons deliver maximum power at any instant of
positive peak of RF cycle
If T is the time period at the resonant frequency, to is the
time taken by the reference electron to travel in the repeller space
between entering the repeller space and returning to the cavity at
positive peak voltage on formation of the bunch
Then, to = (n + ¾)T = NT
Where N = n + ¾, n = 0,1,2,3…….
N – mode of oscillation
The Power output of lowest mode?
is Maximum
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Analysis of Reflex Klystron:
Velocity Modulation
Transit time
Density Modulation and beam current
Power output
Efficiency
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Velocity modulation
Basic assumptions:
Cavity grid and repeller plate are parallel and large
No RF field is excited in repeller space
No electron interception by the cavity anode grid
No debunching action in the cavity space
V1<<V0
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Performance Characteristics
1. Frequency: 2– 200 GHz
2. Power: 10 mW – 2.5 W
3. Theoretical efficiency : 22.78 %
4. Practical efficiency : 10 % - 20 %
5. Tuning range : 5 GHz at 2 W – 30 GHz at 10
mW
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Applications
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Biological effects of microwaves
A part of radiofrequency (RF) radiation, which covers 0.5
MHz to 300 GHz range produces adverse biological effects.
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Ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation
Ionization is a process - electrons are stripped from atoms
and molecules and this can produce molecular changes that
can lead to damage in biological tissue, including effects on
DNA, the genetic material.
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Non ionizing radiation
Microwave energy is non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation.
Ionizing radiation messes up molecules, non-ionizing
radiation merely heats them.
In general, it does not have sufficient energy to kick an
electron off an atom thus producing charged particle in a
body and cause biological damage.
The only proven harmful effect from exposure to microwave
(or RF) radiation is thermal.
RF radiation can enter deep into the body and heat human
organs.
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Effect of microwaves in human body
The blood vessels are dilating and the blood flow increases
substantially as the thermoregulatory mechanism is
activated in order to keep the body temperature constant.
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Effects produced by the electromagnetic waves at
different frequency level
Above 10 GHz (3 cm wavelength or less) heating occurs
mainly in the outer skin surface.
From 3 GHz to 10 GHz (10 cm to 3 cm) the penetration is
deeper and heating higher
From 150 MHz to about 1 GHz (200 cm to 25 cm
wavelength), penetration is even deeper and because of high
absorption, deep body heating can occur.
Any part of the body that cannot dissipate heat efficiently or is
heat sensitive may be damaged by microwave radiation of
sufficient power.
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Effects of Microwave energy
Power
level Long-term effect Remarks
(mW /cm2) on human body
0.01 Nothing
0.1 Nothing
1 Nothing
5 Nothing Accepted standard for microwave
oven leakage
10 Nothing Accepted standard for maximum
continuous exposure to radiated
emissions (cell phones, etc.)
30 You can feel heat
100 Cataracts can be Summer sunlight is at this level
produced
1000 Pain is induced
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The GOOD NEWS is... with Microwave radiation
Boil water
Cook meat
Fry eggs
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Statistics shows that you are now exposed to electromagnetic
radiation daily, 100 million times greater than your grandparents.
So….
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Multicavity Klystron
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Application
As power output tubes
1. in UHF TV transmitters
2. in troposphere scatter transmitters
3. satellite communication ground station
4. radar transmitters
As power oscillator (5 – 50 GHz), if used as a
klystron oscillator
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TRAVELING-WAVE TUBE (TWT)
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Travelling Wave Tube
Introduction:
The traveling-wave tube (TWT) was invented in 1944 by
Kompfner.
The Traveling-Wave Tube (TWT) is an amplifier of microwave
energy.
It accomplishes this through the interaction of an electron beam
and an RF circuit known as a slow wave structure.
TWT are commonly used as amplifiers in satellite transponders,
where the input signal is very weak and the output needs to be
high power.
TWT transmitters are used extensively in radar systems,
particularly in airborne fire-control radar systems, and in
electronic warfare and self-protection systems.
Difference between TWT & Klystron:
In the case of the TWT, the microwave circuit is non-resonant.
The interaction of electron beam and RF field in the TWT is
continuous over the entire length of the circuit, but the interaction
in the klystron occurs only at the gaps of a few resonant cavities.
The wave in the TWT is a propagating wave; the wave in the
klystron is not.
In the coupled-cavity TWT there is a coupling effect between the
cavities, whereas each cavity in the klystron operates
independently.
Types of TWT:
Helix Travelling wave Tube:
How it works:
Types of magnetrons
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Description of types of magnetron
Negative resistance Magnetrons
Make use of negative resistance between two anode
segments but have low efficiency and are useful only at
low frequencies (< 500 MHz).
Cyclotron frequency Magnetrons
Depend upon synchronization between an alternating
component of electric and periodic oscillation of electrons
in a direction parallel to this field.
Useful only for frequencies greater than 100 MHz.
Cavity Magnetrons
Depend upon the interaction of electrons with a rotating
electromagnetic field of constant angular velocity.
Provide oscillations of very high peak power and hence
are useful in radar applications
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Cavity Magnetrons
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Construction
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Description
Magnetron is a cross field device as the electric field
between the anode and the cathode is radial whereas the
magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet is axial.
A high DC potential can be applied between the cathode
and anode which produces the radial electric field.
Depending on the relative strengths of the electric and
magnetic fields, the electrons emitted from the cathode and
moving towards the anode will traverse through the
interaction space as shown in Fig. (iii).
In the absence of magnetic field (B = 0), the electron travel
straight from the cathode to the anode due to the radial
electric field force acting on it, Fig (iii) a.
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Cavity Magnetrons
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Fig (ii) Cross sectional view of the anode
assembly
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Properties of important semiconducors
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Application of microwave solid state devices
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The microwave transistor is a nonlinear device is
It is similar to that of the low-frequency device, but requirements for
dimensions, process control, heat sinking, and packaging are much more severe.
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Physical structure
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For high-frequency applications, the n p n structure
is preferred.
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Operation modes of an npn transistors
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IMPATT DIODE
A wide variety of solid state diodes and transistor
have been developed for microwave use.
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AVALANCHE MULTIPLICATION
When the reverse bias voltage is above the breakdown
voltage, the space charge region always extends from n+ -p
junction to the i –p+ junction through the p and the i
regions.
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IMPATT DIODE Operation
The diode is operated in reverse bias near
breakdown, and both the N and N- regions are
completely depleted
Because of the difference in doping between the
"drift region" and "avalanche region", the
electric field is highly peaked in the
avalanche region and nearly flat in drift
region.
In operation, avalanche breakdown occurs at
the point of highest electric field, and this
generates a large number of hole-electron pairs by
impact ionization.
The holes are swept into the cathode, but the
electrons travel across the drift region toward
anode.
Figure 1: Impatt Diode Operation
IMPATT DIODE Operation
As they drift, they induce image charges on the anode, giving rise
to a displacement current in the external circuit that is 180° out of
phase with the nearly sinusoidal voltage waveform
Figure 2 shows the buildup of microwave oscillations in the diode
current and voltage when the diode is embedded in a resonant
cavity and biased at breakdown
IMPATT DIODE Operation
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Advantages
Applications:
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Transferred Electron Devices (TED)
TED’s are semiconductor devices with no junctions and
gates.
e = Electron charge
μ = Electron mobility
= Electron density in the lower valley
= Electron density in the upper valley
is the electron density
According to RWH theory, in order to exhibit negative resistance
the energy band structure of semiconductor should satisfy
Gunn diode with a resistive circuit -> Voltage change across diode is
constant-> Period of oscillation is the time required for the domain
to drift from the cathode to anode. Not suitable for microwave
applications because of low efficiency.
Gunn diode with a resonant circuit has high efficiency.
There are three domain modes for Gunn oscillation modes.
1. Transit time domain mode, (Gunn mode)
2. Delayed domain mode