STAMFORD UNIVERSITY BANGLADESH

Department of Civil Engineering

CEN 203: Engineering Geology and Geomorphology

Lecture Sheet 10 : River Transportation and Stream Deposition

Lecture Prepared by : Rafid Shams Huq, Lecturer

Learning Points:

1. Classification of Load
2. Movement of Bed Load
3. Longitudinal Profile of a Stream
4. Stream Deposition
River Transportation
Activities of Running Water:
The water that flows along the river does the following works:
a. It transports the debris
b. It erodes the river channels deeper into the bed
c. It deposits sediments at various points along the valley or
delivers them to lakes or oceans

River Transportation:
River transportation is the ability of the river to carry along the
particles that a stream picks up directly from its own channel or
that is supplied to it by slope wash, tributaries or mass movement.
River Transportation
Factors affecting the transportation power of the river:
a. Size of the particles to be carried
b. Volume of total load
c. Velocity of river

Some Important Definitions:

1. Load:
The amount of material that a river carries at any time is called its load. Though it is a
volume, it is expressed in tons.
2. Capacity:
The total amount of material a river is capable of carrying under any given set
conditions is called the capacity of the river. Capacity of a river varies approximately
with the third power of the velocity if a fair proportion of all grain sizes are available,
with a higher power if all the materials are fine grained and with a lower power if the
material is coarse. The capacity is a function of discharge and velocity.
3. Competence:
The maximum size of particle that a river can carry is called its competence.
Competence is a function of velocity only. The diameter of a particle that a river can
move varies approximately with the square of the stream velocity.
Classification of Load
In rivers, load may be carried in solution up to a certain extent, or it may be carried
mechanically as sediments.

a. Dissolved Load:
These are the soluble materials and are carried in solution in the form of ions.
Whether a particle will go in solution depends on its chemical properties. When the
sediment discharge is high, even the soluble materials may not go in solution as the
water is already saturated. Again if the particle size is too large it may not dissolve.
The amount of dissolved load depends upon: (1) Climate (heat), (2) Season
(temperature) and (3) Geologic Setting (presence of sand, pebbles, etc.)

b. Suspended Load:
This is the load carried mechanically as sediment. These are the particles of solid
matter that are swept along in the turbulent current of the stream and remain in
suspension. The amount of this load depends upon (1) intensity of turbulence of
water and (2) terminal velocity of each individual particle.

c. Bed Load:
These are solid particles, which move along the riverbed. Bed load mainly consists of
gravel and sand.
Movement of Bed Load
Particles in the bed load move in three ways: By Saltation, by Rolling and by
Sliding:

a. By Saltation:
A particle moving by saltation jumps from one point of the stream to another.
First, it is picked up by a current of turbulent water and flung upwards and if it is
too heavy to remain in suspension, it drops to the stream floor again at some spot
downstream.

b. By Rolling and Sliding:

Some particles are too large and heavy to be picked up by the water current. But
they may be pushed along the streambed and depending on their shape, they
move forward either by rolling or by sliding.
Movement of Bed Load
We think the flood as the change in the height of water surface but apart from that, change
occurs in the stream bed which we can not see because of the turbidity of water flowing
through the stream.

Figure: Stage-Discharge behavior in unsteady flow condition

The figure above represents the unsteady behavior of stage-discharge relationship at a
location of the stream. The maximum stage and the maximum discharge occur at different
times.

The changes of the channel bed form that take place during the flood need clear
understanding of this unsteady behavioral pattern. River channel changes in configuration
with this rising and falling stage.
Movement of Bed Load
 At first the bed may be built up by large amounts of bed load supplied in the
stream during the first phase of heavy runoff. [Observe the elevated bed level as
a result of it]. This stage disappears soon.

 The bed is actively deepened by scour as the stream stage rises. This is quite
interesting to mark the lowest elevation of the bed at the highest stage.

 In the next stage which can be identified by the falling stage of the stage
discharge curve, the stage starts to fall and the bed is built back up by the
deposition of the bed load.
Movement of Bed Load
When the flood crest has passed after the decrease in the discharge, the
capacity of the stream transport load also declines. Some of the particles,
that are in motion, come to rest on the bed in the form of sand and gravel
bars.

First the largest boulders and cobblestones will cease (stop) rolling, then
the pebbles and gravels and then the sand.

When restored to low stage, the water may become quite clear with only a
few grains of sand rolling along the bed where the current is still fast
enough.
Equilibrium & Graded Stream
Concept of Equilibrium and Graded Stream:
As an idealized concept, an ‘Equilibrium Condition’ means the supply of load to a
stream from its drainage basin is such that it exactly matches the capacity of stream
to transport. In this type of stream, the hydraulic factors are changing continuously
to bring about a state of equilibrium. This sort of stream is called a ‘Graded Stream’.
A graded stream is one in which, the slope is delicately adjusted over a period of
years to provide, along with the available discharge and prevailing channel
characteristics, just the velocity required for the transportation of the load supplied
to it by the drainage basin.

Factors Controlling Equilibrium of a Stream:

a. Stream Discharge, Q:
It is usually measured in ft3/sec or m3/sec. It is dependent mainly on climate. The
relationship Q = A* Vm is important. Where, A = area of the section perpendicular to
the direction of flow, and Vm = mean velocity of the section.

b. Sediment Discharge and Size of Sediment:

Climate, weathering and all processes delivering sediment to the stream determine
the quantity of sediment discharge (tons/day) and the size of sediment.
Equilibrium & Graded Stream
c. Slope:
The slope adjusts automatically to provide the velocity necessary for
transporting the amount and size of the material being delivered to the stream.

If the slope is too low for transporting the sediment load, deposition occurs until
the slope is sufficient for transporting. If the slope is so steep that it provides a
velocity greater than that necessary to transport the load, erosion reduces the
slope. This new slope will provide the velocity needed to transport the sediment
load.

d. Channel Shape:
The ratio of width to depth is used to describe the channel shape. The
interaction of discharge, amount of sediment, slope and local factors such as
bank erodability and channel alignment determine channel shape.
Longitudinal Profile
Longitudinal Profile of a Stream:
The longitudinal profile of a stream is a graphic outline of the stream’s gradient along
its course. It provides information of the elevation of the streambed at any location,
the elevation being measured with respect to some fixed datum (e.g. Mean Sea
Level).

The longitudinal profile is a function of the following variables:

• Discharge
• Load delivered to the channel
• Size of debris,
• Velocity of flow
• Flow resistance
• Depth of flow
• Width of the channel
• Slope of the channel

Note: The base level of a river or stream is the lowest point to which it can flow
Longitudinal Profile
Equation of Longitudinal Profile:
Assumption:
The tendency of a stream to erode at any particular point along its profile is
directly proportional to the height of the stream above the base level.
If, H = Elevation above base level or MSL in ft and X = Distance downstream
from source in mile, then based on the assumption,

This is the equation of the longitudinal bed profile.

Here, is slope.

At upstream, elevation is higher and hence slope is

greater, so erodability is high. Here flash flood occurs as
the water goes down very quickly. On the other hand, at
downstream, slope is less, erodability is less but long
time stagnation of water takes place while flood.
Longitudinal Profile
Readjustment of the Stream Grade:

1. Effect of Increase in bed load:

Increase of bed load beyond stream capacity
→Accumulation of coarse sediment on the stream bed
→ Elevation of stream bed
→ Aggradation
As consequence of aggradation:
a. In the upstream direction:
Reduction of the channel slope in the upstream direction
→ Reduction of the stream capacity in the reach
→ Accumulation of bed materials in the upstream direction
b. In the downstream direction:
Increase in the channel slope
→ Increase in velocity
→ Bed material is dragged downstream
Aggradation changes the channel cross section from a narrow and deep
form to a wide and shallow one.
 Longitudinal Profile
2. Effect of Decrease in bed load:

• Scouring of stream
• Degradation (channel trenching) into the alluvium and lowering of stream
profile
As a result of this, the channel takes a narrower cross section and develops
steep, wall-like banks of alluvium. After this channel trenching, the former
floodplain is free from annual flooding.

After degradation has taken place, the stream will normally attain a new and
lower profile of equilibrium. When the new equilibrium is established the
stream will usually develop meanders and will shift laterally to form a new
floodplain.
Stream Deposition
Alluvial Fan:
An alluvial fan is a fan-shaped deposit
formed where a fast flowing stream flattens,
slows, and spreads typically at the exit of a
canyon onto a flatter plain.

A mountain stream carries lots of alluvial

sediment easily when its gradient is steep
and energy is abundant. When the stream
leaves the mountains and debouches onto
the plain, the flow is slowed down. It drops
most of that alluvial sediment immediately.

As this reduces the capacity of the channel,

the channel will change direction over time,
gradually building up a slightly mounded or
shallow conical fan shape. So over
thousands of years, a wide fan shaped pile
of unconsolidated sedimentary deposit
buildsup. This is known as an alluvial fan.
Stream Deposition
River Delta:
A delta is a landform where the mouth of a river flows into an ocean, sea, desert,
estuary, lake or another river. It builds up sediment outwards into the flat area
which the river's flow encounters (as a deltaic deposit) transported by the water
and set down as the currents slow. Deltaic deposits of larger, heavily-laden rivers
are characterized by the main channel dividing amongst often substantial land
masses into multiple streams known as distributaries. These divide and come
together again to form a maze of active and inactive channels. The deposit at the
mouth of a river is usually roughly triangular in shape.
Stream Deposition
The triangular shape and the increased width at the base are due to blocking of the
river mouth by fine sediment, with resulting continual formation of distributaries at
angles to the original course. These distributaries start out flowing fairly fast, but
slow as more sediment is deposited and ultimately, the water flows elsewhere.

So, River delta is a low triangular area of alluvial deposits where a river divides
before entering a larger body of water. This is so named because the sediment
deposit at its mouth has the shape of the uppercase Greek letter delta.

Stream Terrace:
Stream terraces are relict features, such as floodplains, from periods when a stream
was flowing at a higher elevation and has downcut to a lower elevation. Stream
terraces often appear as plateaus on existing valley walls and indicate earlier stream
elevations. Changes in elevation can be due to changes in the base level (elevation
of the lowest point in the stream system, usually the drainage basin) of the stream
system which leads to headward erosion along the length of the stream, gradually
lowering its elevation. Terraces can also be left behind when the volume of stream
flow declines due to changes in climate, typical of areas which were covered by ice
during periods of glaciation, and their adjacent drainage basins.
Stream Deposition

Figure: Stages in stream trenching and terrace formation:

A. Aggradation by a braided stream that has partly filled a valley with alluvium.
B. Trenching leaves a wide alluvial terrace.
C. The graded stream forms a new floodplain by undercutting the terrace.
Stream Deposition
Landforms of Alluvial River Floodplains:
An alluvial river flows on a very gentle downvalley gradient. The typical alluvial river
has sinuous (snakelike) bends, called alluvial meanders, and occupies a floodplain. A
floodplain is a belt of flat land, present on one or both sides of the river channel, and
subjected to inundation by overbank flooding annually or biennially. The following
block diagram shows the surface configuration and landforms of a typical alluvial
river floodplain.
Stream Deposition
An alluvial river flows on a thick accumulation of alluvial deposits constructed by
the river itself in earlier stages of its activity. These sedimentary deposits, called
alluvium, consist of clay, silt, sand, or gravel in various layered arrangements. The
floodplain is bounded on either side by rising slopes, called bluffs.

Meanders develop narrow necks, which are cut through, shortening the river
course and leaving a meander loop abandoned. This event is called a cutoff. It is
quickly followed by deposition of silt and sand across the ends of the abandoned
channel, producing an oxbow lake. The oxbow lake is gradually filled with fine
sediment brought in during high floods and with organic matter produced by
aquatic plants. Eventually the oxbows are converted into swamps, but they retain
their identity indefinitely. During periods of overbank flooding, when the entire
floodplain is inundated, water spreads from the main channel over adjacent
floodplain deposits. As the current rapidly slackens, sand and silt are deposited in a
zone adjacent to the channel. The result is an accumulation known as a natural
levee. Between the levees and the bluffs is lower ground, the backswamp. Because
deposition is heavier closest to the channel and decreases away from the channel,
the levee surface slopes away from the channel.
Acknowledgement
Thanks to our respected teacher Dr. Md. Mahfizur Rahman, Professor, BUET for
taking this subject as one of our undergraduate courses in BUET. This lecture
material is entirely based on the lecture material he gave us.