Cutting Tool Technology

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining
1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Discontinuous Chip

 Brittle work materials

 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth
of cut
 High tool-chip friction

Figure Four types of chip

formation in metal cutting:
(a) discontinuous

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Continuous Chip

 Ductile work materials

 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and
depths
 Sharp cutting edge
 Low tool-chip friction

Figure continuous

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Continuous with BUE
 Ductile materials
 Low-to-medium cutting
speeds
 Tool-chip friction
causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
 BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically

Figure continuous with

built-up edge

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Serrated Chip

 Semicontinuous -
saw-tooth
appearance
 Cyclical chip forms
with alternating high
shear strain then low
shear strain
 Associated with
difficult-to-machine
metals at high cutting
speeds Figure 21.9 (d) serrated.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Cutting Tool Technology
Two principal aspects:
1. Tool material
2. Tool geometry

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Three Modes of Tool Failure
1. Fracture failure
 Cutting force becomes excessive and/or
dynamic, leading to brittle fracture
2. Temperature failure
 Cutting temperature is too high for the tool
material , causing the material at the tool
point to soften which leads to plastic
deformation and loss of sharp edge.
3. Gradual wear
 Gradual wearing of the cutting tool, loss of
sharp edge and cutting efficiency, causes
also temperature failure. Worn tool requires
more cutting force for the operation.
 Preferred Mode: Gradual Wear
 Fracture and temperature failures are
premature failures
 Gradual wear is preferred because it leads to
the longest possible use of the tool
 Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a tool:
 Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
 Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Tool Wear

 Crater wear
 occurs on top rake face
 consist of a concave section on rake
face of the tool, formed by the action of chip
sliding against surface
 It is measured by its depth or its area

 Flank wear
 occurs on flank (side of tool) or relief face
of the tool
 It results from rubbing between newly
generated work surface & flank face
 Measured by width of wear band
 Tool Wear

Figure 23.1 Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal

locations and types of wear that occur.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Figure 23.2 Crater wear,
(above), and flank wear (right) on
a cemented carbide tool, as seen
through a toolmaker's
microscope (photos by K. C.
Keefe, Manufacturing Technology
Lab, Lehigh University).

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Tool Wear

 Notch Wear
 Wear appears on cutting at the cutting edge
 due to harder work surface
 More abrasive than internal surface due to
work hardening
 Sand particles from casting
 Principal causes of tool wear
 Abrasion- hard abrasive particles in the work part causes
crater wear and flank wear (more). Mechanical wearing
action
 Adhesion- Forces of attraction b/w tool and W.P (chips)
under high pressure and temperature cause particles of the
tool to break away. Cause wear on the rake pace. Same
occurs in welding process
 Diffusion-exchange of atoms b/w WP and tool and
responsible for the depletion of atoms of hardened layer of
tool. Causes crater wear. Diffusion occurs at the tool-chip
boundary
 Chemical reactions-High temperature and clean surfaces at
tool can cause oxidation on the rake face. New Oxide layer
(usually softer) on the tool shears rapidly.
 Plastic deformation- High temperature at cutting edge can
cause the edge to deform plastically. High temperature
causes the edge to deform plastically Contributes to flank
wear.
 Tool Wear vs. Time

Figure 23.3 Tool wear as a function of cutting time. Flank

wear (FW) is used here as the measure of tool wear.
Crater wear follows a similar growth curve.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Effect of Cutting Speed

Figure 23.4 Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three
cutting speeds, using a tool life criterion of 0.50 mm flank wear.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Tool Life vs. Cutting Speed

Tool life is the length of cutting time that the tool can be used.

Figure 23.5 Natural log-log plot of cutting speed vs tool life.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Taylor Tool Life Equation
Relationship is credited to F. W. Taylor
vT n  C
where v = cutting speed; T = tool life; and n and C
are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut,
work material, tooling material, and the tool life
criterion used
 n is the slope of the plot (constant for a given
material)
 C is the intercept on the speed axis at one minute
tool life (depends on work material, tool material and
cutting conditions)
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Tool Life Criteria in Production
1. Complete failure of cutting edge
2. Visual inspection of flank wear (or crater
wear) by the machine operator
3. Fingernail test across cutting edge
4. Changes in sound emitted from operation
5. Chips become ribbon-like, stringy, and
difficult to dispose of
6. Degradation of surface finish
7. Increased power
8. Workpiece count
9. Cumulative cutting time

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Tool Materials
 Tool failure modes identify the important properties
that a tool material should possess:
 Toughness - to avoid fracture failure. Capacity of
a material to absorb shocks. A combination of
ductility and strength.
 Hot hardness - ability to retain hardness at high
temperatures
 Wear resistance - hardness is the most important
property to resist abrasive wear
Also surface finish, smooth surface of the tool is
suitable for low coefficient of friction.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Thermal Conductivity of tool and
WP
Effect on cutting Efficiency

?
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Properties of Tool Materials
Material Hardness Rupture strength
(MPa)

Plain Carbon Steel 60HRC 5200

HSS 65 HRC 4100
Cast Cobalt Alloy 65 HRC 2250
Cemented Carbide 1800 HK 1400
Cermet 2400 HK 1700
Alumina 2100 HK 400
CBN 5000 HK 700
Poly crystalline 6000 HK 1000
diamond
Natural Diamond 8000HK 1500
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Flexural strength, also known as modulus
of rupture, or bend strength, or
transverse rupture strength is a material
property, defined as the stress in a material just
before it yields in a flexure test

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Hot Hardness

Figure 23.6 Typical hot hardness relationships for selected tool

materials. Plain carbon steel shows a rapid loss of hardness as
temperature increases. High speed steel is substantially better, while
cemented carbides and ceramics are significantly harder at elevated
temperatures.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Typical Values of n and C
Tool n C C Cutting Speed Cutting Speed
Material
Nonsteel Steel Nonsteel Steel Cutting
Cutting Cutting Cutting (m/min)
(m/min) (m/min) (m/min)

PCS 0.1 70 20 Below 10 Below 5

HSS 0.125 120 70 25-65 17-33

Cemented 0.25 900 500 330-650 100-300

Carbide
Cermet 0.25 165-400

Coated 0.25 165-400

Carbide
Ceramic 0.6 330-650

Diamond 390-1300

CBN 500-800

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 High Speed Steel (HSS)
 Plain Carbon steel has been replaced by HSS due to their poor hot
hardness (due to lack of alloying elements).
 Highly alloyed tool steel (HSS) is capable of maintaining hardness
at elevated temperatures better than high carbon and low alloy
steels.
 One of the most important cutting tool materials
 Especially suited to applications involving complicated tool
geometries, such as drills, taps, milling cutters, and broaches
 Two basic types (AISI)
1. Tungsten-type, designated T- grades
2. Molybdenum-type, designated M-grades
 Heat treated to achieve edge hardness.
 They have better toughness compared to other non steels
(ceramics, cemented carbides)
 Coating of TiN is also done oftenly to increses cutting performane.
(coating methods like ion plating and physical vapour deposition
methods)
 High Speed Steel Composition
Alloying Typical contents in Functions in HSS
Element HSS % by weight
Increase hot hardness
T-type HSS (12-20%)
Tungsten
Improves abrasion resistance through
M-type HSS (1.5-6%)
formation of hard carbides in HSS
T-type HSS (none) Increase hot hardness
Molybdenum
Improves abrasion resistance through
M-type HSS (5-10%) formation of hard carbides in HSS
Depth hardenability during heat treatment
Improves abrasion resistance through
Chromium 3.75-4.5%
formation of hard carbides in HSS
Corrosion resistance (minor effect)
Combines with carbon for wear resistance
Vanadium 1-5 %
Better toughness
Cobalt 0-12 % Increase hot hardness
Carbon 0.75-1.5 % Wear resistance and brittleness increases
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Cast Cobalt Alloys
 Consisting of Cobalt (40-50)%, Chromium (25-50)%, Tungsten
(15-20)%
 Good hardness no need of heat treatment
 Wear resistance is better than HSS but less than cemented
carbide
 Toughness is better than carbides but less than HSS
 Hot hardness lies b/w HSS and carbides
 Capable of heavy roughing cuts at speeds grater than HSS and
feeds greater than carbides
 Work Materials- steel, nonsteels, nonmetall (plastics and
graphites)

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Cermets
 Composites of ceramics and metallic materials.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Cemented Carbides
Class of hard tool material based on tungsten
carbide (WC) using powder metallurgy
techniques with cobalt (Co) as the binder.
Capable of cutting speeds 3 to 4 times high-
speed steel toolbits

 Two basic types:

1. Non-steel cutting grades - only WC-Co
2. Steel cutting grades - TiC and TaC added
to WC-Co

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Cemented Carbides – General Properties
 High compressive strength but
low-to-moderate tensile strength
 High hardness (90 to 95 HRA)
 Good hot hardness
 Good wear resistance
 High thermal conductivity
 High elastic modulus - 600 x 103 MPa (90 x 106
lb/in2)
 Toughness lower than high speed steel

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Non-steel Cutting Carbide Grades
 Used for nonferrous metals and gray cast iron
 Properties determined by grain size and cobalt
content
 As grain size increases, hardness and hot
hardness decrease, but toughness
increases
 In high Cobalt content, toughness improves
at the expense of hardness and wear
resistance (rough cuts and interrupted
cutting like milling)
 In low Carbon content, toughness
decreases and the hardness and wear
resistance increases (finishing cuts)
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Steel Cutting Carbide Grades
 Used for low carbon, stainless, and other
alloy steels
 TiC and/or TaC are substituted for some of
the WC
 Composition increases crater wear
resistance for steel cutting
 But adversely affects flank wear
resistance for non-steel cutting
applications

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Cermets
Combinations of TiC, TiN, and titanium
carbonitride (TiCN), with nickel and/or
molybdenum as binders.
 Some chemistries are more complex
 Applications: high speed finishing and
semifinishing of steels, stainless steels, and
cast irons
 Higher speeds and lower feeds than
steel-cutting carbide grades
 Better finish achieved, often eliminating
need for grinding

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Coated Carbides
Cemented carbide insert coated with one or
more thin layers of wear resistant materials,
such as TiC, TiN, and/orAl2O3
 Coating applied by chemical vapor
deposition or physical vapor deposition
 Coating thickness = 2.5 - 13 m (0.0001 to
0.0005 in)
 Applications: cast irons and steels in turning
and milling operations
 Best applied at high speeds where dynamic
force and thermal shock are minimal

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Coated Carbide Tool

Photomicrograph
of cross section of
multiple coatings
on cemented
carbide tool (photo
courtesy of
Kennametal Inc.)

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Ceramics
they are primarily fine-grained,pressed and sintered at
high pressures and temperatures into insert form with
no binder.
Materials- SiC, Al2O3,
They are brittle and low tough materials
Advantages of Ceramic Tools are:
 High strength for light cuts
 Capability of running at high speed

 Applications: high speed turning of cast iron and steel

 Not recommended for heavy interrupted cuts (e.g.
rough milling) due to low toughness
 Al2O3 also widely used as an abrasive in grinding
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Synthetic Diamonds
Sintered polycrystalline diamond (SPD) -
fabricated by sintering very fine-grained
diamond crystals under high temperatures
and pressures into desired shape with little
or no binder
 Usually applied as coating (0.5 mm thick)
on WC-Co insert
 Applications: high speed machining of
nonferrous metals and abrasive nonmetals
such as fiberglass, graphite, and wood
 Due to its chemical affinity with steel and
nickel based alloys it is not preferable for
them.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Cubic Boron Nitride
 Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (cBN) is
hardest material known
 Fabrication into cutting tool inserts same as
SPD: coatings on WC-Co inserts
 Applications: machining steel and nickel-based
alloys
 SPD and cBN tools are expensive

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Tool Geometry
Two categories:
 Single point tools
 Used for turning, boring, shaping, and
planing
 Multiple cutting edge tools
 Used for drilling, reaming, tapping,
milling, broaching, and sawing

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Single-Point Tool Geometry

Figure 23.7 (a) Seven

elements of single-point
tool geometry; and (b) the
tool signature convention
that defines the seven
elements.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Purpose
 To reduce force and power requirement
 To provide clearance for chip disposal
 To reduce friction and rubbing

 Generally relief angles are intended for clearance (chip

disposal application)
 Side Cutting edge angle – Reduce the force and power
requirement
 End Cutting edge angle- Reduce friction and rubbing
 Rake face- Direction to the chip flow
 Rake angle- Controls the direction to the chip flow and
power consumption
 Nose Radius- Improves surface finish and smoothness

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
  Positive rake angle-Reduction of cutting forces,
temperature and power requirement
 For HSS, high rake angles are used keeping in view
the good toughness of the HSS.(5-20 degree)
 For carbides, negative or smaller positive angles are
desired (-5-10 degrees) and small relief angle.
Carbides are less tough. Also use it for lighter cuts.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Holding the Tool

Figure 23.9 Three ways of holding and presenting the cutting edge
for a single-point tool: (a) solid tool, typical of HSS; (b) brazed
insert, one way of holding a cemented carbide insert; and (c)
mechanically clamped insert, used for cemented carbides,
ceramics, and other very hard tool materials.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Common Insert Shapes

Figure 23.10 Common insert shapes: (a) round, (b) square, (c)
rhombus with two 80 point angles, (d) hexagon with three 80
point angles, (e) triangle (equilateral), (f) rhombus with two 55
point angles, (g) rhombus with two 35 point angles. Also shown
are typical features of the geometry.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
A collection of metal cutting
inserts made of various
materials (photo courtesy of
Kennametal Inc.).

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Twist Drills

 By far the most common cutting tools for

hole-making
 Usually made of high speed steel

Figure 23.12 Standard geometry of a twist drill.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Twist Drill Operation
 Rotation and feeding of drill bit result in relative
motion between cutting edges and workpiece
to form the chips
 Cutting speed varies along cutting edges as
a function of distance from axis of rotation
 Relative velocity at drill point is zero, so no
cutting takes place
 A large thrust force is required to drive the
drill forward into hole
 Chip removal
 Flutes must provide sufficient clearance to
allow chips to be extracted from bottom of
©2007 John Wiley hole during
& Sons, Inc. the
M P Groover, cuttingof operation
Fundamentals Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Milling Cutters
 Principal types:
 Plain milling cutter
 Face milling cutter
 End milling cutter

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Plain Milling Cutter
 Used for peripheral or slab milling

Figure 23.13 Tool

geometry elements of
an 18-tooth plain milling
cutter

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Face Milling Cutter

 Teeth cut on side and periphery of the cutter

Figure 23.14 Tool geometry elements of a four-tooth face

milling cutter: (a) side view and (b) bottom view.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 End Milling Cutter
 Looks like a drill bit but designed for primary
cutting with its peripheral teeth
 Applications:
 Face milling
 Profile milling and pocketing
 Cutting slots
 Engraving
 Surface contouring
 Die sinking

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Cutting Fluids
Any liquid or gas applied directly to machining
operation to improve cutting performance
 Two main problems addressed by cutting fluids:
1. Heat generation at shear and friction zones
2. Friction at tool-chip and tool-work interfaces
 Other functions and benefits:
 Wash away chips (e.g., grinding and milling)
 Reduce temperature of workpart for easier
handling
 Improve dimensional stability of workpart

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Cutting Fluid Functions
Cutting fluids can be classified according to
function:
 Coolants - designed to reduce effects of heat in
machining
 Lubricants - designed to reduce tool-chip and
tool-work friction

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Coolants
 Water used as base in coolant-type cutting
fluids
 Good thermal conductivity and specific heat is
required so use water.
 Most effective at high cutting speeds where
heat generation and high temperatures are
problems
 Most effective on tool materials that are most
susceptible to temperature failures (e.g., HSS)
 Turning and milling applications where large
heat is produced

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Lubricants
 Usually oil-based fluids
 Most effective at lower cutting speeds, loose
their effectiveness at high speeds (High
temperature vapourize oils)
 Also reduce temperature in the operation
 Applications- drilling and tapping

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Dealing with Cutting Fluid Contamination
 Replace cutting fluid at regular and frequent
intervals
 Use filtration system to continuously or
periodically clean the fluid
 Dry machining

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Cutting Fluid Filtration
Advantages:
 Prolong cutting fluid life between changes
 Reduce fluid disposal cost
 Cleaner fluids reduce health hazards
 Lower machine tool maintenance
 Longer tool life

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Applying a cutting fluid
 Flooding-A steady stream of fluid is directed at
machining area. Usually coolants are used in
this.
 Mist Application-Applying a fluid in the form of
a high pressure mist by a pressurized air
stream.
 Manual applications

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Solid lubrication
 Use of solid lubricant like powders of graphite
are used.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
 Dry Machining
 No cutting fluid is used
 Avoids problems of cutting fluid contamination,
disposal, and filtration
 Problems with dry machining:
 Overheating of tool
 Operating at lower cutting speeds and
production rates to prolong tool life
 Absence of chip removal benefits of cutting
fluids in grinding and milling

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e