Electronic Circuits: Engr. Denver G. Magtibay
Electronic Circuits: Engr. Denver G. Magtibay
Electronic Circuits: Engr. Denver G. Magtibay
• Audio Amplifier
• RF Amplifier
• Video Amplifier
AUDIO AMPLIFIER
• Audio amplifiers are designed to amplify signals with
frequency between 20 Hz and 20 kHz.
• Any amplifier that is designed for any band of
frequencies contained in AUDIO RANGE is called
Audio Amplifier.
RF AMPLIFIER
• RF Amplifiers are designed to amplify signals
with frequencies between 10 kHz and 100 GHz.
• Any Amplifier designed to amplify frequency
band included in the RF range is considered an RF
Amplifier.
VIDEO AMPLIFIER
• Also known as WIDEBAND AMPLIFIERS.
• A Video Amplifier is designed to amplify a band
of frequencies from 10 Hz to 6 MHz.
Amplifier Primary Characteristics
In small-signal amplifiers the primary characteristics are:
Amplification
Linearity
Gain
Large signal amplifiers, or power amplifiers handle relatively
large voltage signals and current levels. As such, the primary
characteristics are:
Efficiency
Maximum power capability
Impedance matching
Class A Amplifier
The transistor in a class A
amplifier conducts for the full
360 of the cycle.
Voltage Ratio
V1 N 1
V2 N 2
Current Ratio
I 2 N1
I1 N2
Impedance Ratio
2
R1 N1
R2 N 2
Class B Amplifier
Each transistor in a class B
amplifier conducts for 180 (half)
of the AC input signal.
The center-tapped
transformer on the
output combines the two
halves of the AC
waveform together.
Crossover Distortion
+
Push-pull
Differential Voltage
amplifier
Vin amplifier amplifier(s) Vout
output
– input stage gain stage
stage
SIGNAL MODES
• Differential-mode signals are • Common-mode signals are
applied either as single-ended (one applied to both sides with the
side on ground) or double-ended same phase on both.
(opposite phases on the inputs).
Vin Vin
– –
Vout Vout
+ +
Vin
–
– Vout
Vin Vout +
+ Vin
Rf
Vo V1
R1
NON INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Rf
Vo (1 )V1
R1
UNITY FOLLOWER / VOLTAGE FOLLOWER
Vo V1
SUMMING AMPLIFIER
V1 V2 V3
Vo R f
R1 R2 R3
INTEGRATOR
• The output is the integral of
the input; proportional to the
area under the input
waveform. This circuit is useful
in low-pass filter circuits and
sensor conditioning circuits.
1
RC
v o (t ) v 1( t )dt
DIFFERENTIATOR
• The differentiator takes the
derivative of the input. It
produces an output that
approximates the instantaneous
rate of change of the input
function. This circuit is useful in
high-pass filter circuits. dv1(t )
v o (t ) RC
dt
COMPARATOR
PASSIVE FILTER RESPONSE
• A passive filter is a circuit that passes certain frequencies and rejects all
others. The passband is the range of frequencies allowed through the
filter. The critical frequency defines the end (or ends) of the passband.
• Components includes resistor, capacitor and inductor
• Basic filter responses:
Gain Gain Gain Gain
f f f f
Low-pass High-pass Band-pass Band-stop
BASIC LOW PASS FILTER
• The low-pass filter allows frequencies below the critical
frequency to pass and rejects other. The simplest low-pass
filter is a passive RC circuit with the output taken across C.
Gain (normalized to 1)
–3 dB 0 dB Actual response of a
single-pole RC filter
Passband
–20 dB
Transition R
region Vout
–40 dB
–2
0d
BW B/ Vs
de C
Stopband ca
region de
–60 dB f
0.01 fc 0.1 fc fc 10 fc 100 fc 1000 fc
0 dB
–3 dB
Actual response
Passband
of a single-pole
–20 dB RC filter
C
Vout
de
eca
–40 dB B /d
0d Vs
–2 R
–60 dB f
0.001 fc 0.01 fc 0.1 fc fc 10 fc 100 fc
BASIC BANDPASS FILTER
• A band-pass filter passes all frequencies between two
critical frequencies. The bandwidth is defined as the
difference between the two critical frequencies. The simplest
band-pass filter is an LC circuit in series with the load.
Vout (normalized to 1)
0.707
BW
f
fc1 f0 fc2
BASIC BANDSTOP FILTER
• A band-stop filter rejects frequencies between two critical
frequencies; the bandwidth is measured between the
critical frequencies. The simplest band-stop filter is a
parallel LC circuit in series with the load.
Gain (dB)
0
–3 L
Vout
C
Vs R
f
fc1 f0 fc2
BW
ACTIVE FILTER RESPONSE
• Active filters include one or more op-amps in the design. These filters can
provide much better responses than the passive filters. Active filter
designs optimize various parameters such as amplitude response, roll-off
rate, or phase response.
Av Chebyshev: rapid roll-off characteristic
• Rolloff - The rate of decrease in gain below or above the critical frequencies of a
filter.
FIRST ORDER, LOW PASS ACTIVE FILTER
1
• The upper cutoff frequency is given by: fOH
2πR1C1
SECOND ORDER, LOW PASS ACTIVE FILTER
1
fOL
• The lower cutoff frequency is given by: 2πR1C1
TWO STAGE BANDPASS FILTER
• There are two cutoff
frequencies: upper and
lower. They can be
calculated using the same
low-pass cutoff and high-
pass cutoff frequency
formulas in the
appropriate sections.
AMPLIFIER FEEDBACK
FEEDBACK is the process of sending part of the output
signal of an amplifier back to the input of the amplifier.
Types of FEEDBACK:
• Positive Feedback or Regenerative Feedback
• Negative Feedback or Degenerative Feedback
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
Positive Feedback occurs when the feedback
signal occurs in-phase (0o) with the input signal.
Applications: Oscillator
ADVANTAGES
1. Greater gain
DISADVANTAGES
1. Increases instability
2. Increases noise and distortion
3. Reduces bandwidth
POSITIVE FEEDBACK GAIN AND BANDWIDTH
Where:
A
Af Af – gain of the system with
1 A feedback
A – gain without feedback
BWf - Bandwidth with feedback
BWf BW (1 A ) BW - Bandwidth without feedback
β – feedback factor
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
• Negative Feedback occurs when the feedback signal
occurs out-of-phase (180o) with the input signal.
• Applications: Amplifier Circuits
ADVANTAGES
1. Increases stability
2. Reduces noise and distortion
3. Increases bandwidth
DISADVANTAGES
1. Reduce Gain
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK GAIN AND BANDWIDTH
Where:
A
Af Af – gain of the system with
1 A feedback
A – gain without feedback
BWf - Bandwidth with feedback
BWf BW(1 A ) BW - Bandwidth without feedback
β – feedback factor
GENERAL REPRESENTATION OF FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
• Acquires a portion of the output signal that is to be
fed back to the input
• Can be a VOLTAGE or CURRENT sampling
VOLTAGE SAMPLING / SHUNT DERIVE
• The feedback network is connected in shunt across
the output node.
CURRENT SAMPLING / SERIES DERIVE
• The feedback network is connected in series with the
output loop.
• Responsible for combining the signal source with the
feedback.
• Can be a SERIES or SHUNT mixing
SERIES MIXING / VOLTAGE SUMMING
• The feedback network is connected in series with the
input loop so that the feedback signals is in the form
of voltage.
SHUNT MIXING / CURRENT SUMMING
During oscillation:
Steady oscillation: Aβ = 1 Clipping: Aβ > 1 Damping: Aβ < 1
SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
• A sinusoidal oscillator is a device that produces a sine-wave
output signal.
Types of Sinusoidal Oscillator
a. RC Oscillators
b. LC Oscillators
c. Pierce Oscillator
A. RC OSCILLATORS
• A type of oscillator that has a combination of resistor and
capacitor.
• RC feedback elements are normally used in oscillator that
require low frequency of oscillation up to 1MHz
Types of RC Oscillators
• Wien-Bridge Oscillator
• Phase Shift Oscillator
WIEN-BRIDGE OSCILLATOR
• A Wien-Bridge Oscillator is a lead-
lag circuit.
• Feedback Factor (β) = 1/3
• Voltage gain (A) ≥ 3
• Resonant Frequency (fr)
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π𝑅𝐶
PHASE-SHIFT OSCILLATOR
• An RC oscillator that makes use of
3 RC circuit as feedback network.
• Feedback factor (β) = -1/29
• Voltage gain (A) ≥ -29
• Resonant Frequency (fr)
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2π 6𝑅𝐶
B. LC OSCILLATORS
• A type of oscillator that has a combination of inductor and
capacitor.
• LC feedback elements are normally used in oscillator that
require higher frequencies of oscillation (f>1MHz).
Types
• Armstrong Oscillator • Colpitts Oscillator
• Hartley Oscillator • Clapp Oscillator
ARMSTRONG OSCILLATOR
• Oscillator that employs a transformer in
parallel with a capacitor.
• Type of LC feedback oscillator that uses
transformer coupling to fed back a
portion of the signal voltage. It is
sometimes called a “tickler” oscillator in
reference to the transformer secondary.
1
• It has a disadvantage in terms of size fr
2 LpriC
and cost
HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
• An oscillator with a tapped inductor.
1
fr
2 LtC
Where: Lt L1 L2
COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
• Colpitts Oscillator is similar to
Hartley Oscillator except that two
capacitors are used in the tank
circuit instead of a tapped coil.
1 Where: C 1C 2
fr Ct
2 LCt C1 C2
CLAPP OSCILLATOR
• Clapp Oscillator is an improvement of
Colpitts Oscillator.
• The basic difference is an additional
capacitor Cs in series with the inductor
in the resonant feedback circuit.
1 Where: 1
fr Ct
1 1 1
2 LCt
C1 C2 C
C. PIERCE OSCILLATOR
• The most stable and accurate type of
feedback that uses piezoelectric crystal in
the feedback loop to control the frequency.
• Piezoelectric effect is a crystal property
that is when a changing mechanical stress is
applied across the crystal to cause it to
vibrate, a voltage develops at the
frequency of mechanical vibration.
CRYSTAL’S SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE
Series Resonance Parallel Resonance
• z = minimum • z = maximum
• I = maximum • I = minimum
• f < fr capacitive circuit • f < fr inductive circuit
• f > fr inductive circuit • f > fr capacitive circuit
RESONANT FREQUENCIES
• At series resonance:
• At parallel resonance:
COMMON CRYSTALS
• Rochelle salt has the best piezoelectric properties but is
very fragile.
• Quartz crystals fall between the two extremes and are
the most commonly used. Quartz crystals are made from
silicon dioxide (SiO2). Inexpensive and readily
available.
• Tourmaline is very tough, but has the least piezoelectric
activity. Most expensive among the three.
NON-SINUSOIDAL OSCILLATORS
• Non-sinusoidal Oscillators generate complex waveforms such as
square, rectangular, trigger, sawtooth and trapezoidal waveforms.
• Uses two active components, one conducting and one cutoff at a
given time
• Also called RELAXATION OSCILLATORS.
• One example is the unijunction oscillator.
UNIJUNCTION OSCILLATOR
• The unijunction oscillator (or relaxation
oscillator) produces a sawtooth waveform.
• The output frequency is determined by:
1
fo
RT CT ln1 ( 1 η)
• Three Types:
• Astable Multivibrator
• Monostable Multivibrator
• Bistable Multivibrator
STATES
•Steady stable state – state will not change
unless the circuit is disturbed.
•Quasi stable state – state that remains
unchanged for only a certain period of time.
ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
• Also called free-running
multivibrator
• It has no stable state and
two quasi stable state.
• T = 1.38RC
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
• Also known as single-shot
or one shot
• It has one stable and one
quasi-stable state
• T = 0.693RC
BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
• Commonly known as flip-flop,
binary or Eccles-Jordan
multivibrator.
• It has two stable states and no
quasi stable state.
• T = 0.693RC
“Striving for success without hard work is like
trying to harvest where you haven’t planted.”