Solar energy

R.Somasundaram
Topics to be taught
• Principles of renewable energy:
• Introduction. Fundamentals. Scientific principles of renewable energy. Technical
implications. Social implications.
• Solar radiation:
• Introduction. Extra-terrestrial solar radiation. Components of radiation. Geometry
of Earth & Sun. geometry of collector. Solar beam. Effects of eastern atmosphere.
Measurement. Estimation of solar radiation. Problems.
• Solar water heating:
• Introduction. Heat balance. Unsheltered & sheltered heaters. Systems with
separate storage. Selective surfaces. Evacuated collectors. Uses of solar heat. Air
heater. Space heating & cooling. Water desalination. Solar ponds. Solar
concentrators. Electrical power systems. Problems.
• Photo voltaic generation:
• Silicon P-N junction. Photo absorption. Solar radiation input. Photo voltaic circuit
properties & loads. Limits of cell efficiency. Solar cell concentration. Types &
adaptation of photo voltaic. Other types of photo voltaic & thermo electric
generation. Problems.
Sources of conventional energy

• These sources can not be renewed

once they are consumed.
• These sources cause pollution to
the environment.
• Theses sources are exhaustible.
• These sources are affected by
human activities.
• They are expensive to be produced,
stored and transmitted.
• e.g. wood, coal, mineral, oil like
petroleum products, natural gas
etc.
Renewable energy sources
 Principles of renewal energy

• What do you understand by

renewable energy?
• Renewable energy is the energy
that is collected from renewable
sources, which are naturally
replenished on a human time
scale. e.g sun light, wind, rain,
tides, waves and geothermal heat.
Scientific principles of renewable energy
• Fossil fuel is being explored at an alarming rate due to ever increasing gap
between the demand and production of power.
• A country’s economic growth is depending on the energy available.
• Fossil fuel is not available everywhere in the world.
• Middle east countries which have large reservoir of petroleum products
dictate terms on other countries.
• A developing country need to be under the mercy of nations producing
petroleum products.
• So a need for alternate energy.
• Moreover fossil fuels produce global warming gases and cause green house
effect.
• Hence even petroleum rich countries need to look at renewable energy.
Social & Technical implications
• Higher installation cost for the fabrication of various components.
• Permanent use of large area escalates the initial cost.
• Use of non-recyclable materials like insulation, fibre glass, glass etc.
• However the running cost is comparatively very low.
• Hazards to eye sight from reflectors like parabolic concentrators
• Safety hazards of toxicants used in coolant fluids.
• Limited availability of technical expertise.
• Financial incentives: Govt. of India gives interest free loans to the
individuals.
 What is sun?

• Sun is one of the hundred billion stars in our galaxy.

• There are billions of known galaxies in the known universe.
• It is mainly composed of hydrogen.
• It releases the heat and light energy due to fusing of hydrogen into
helium.
• This energy is radiated through the photosphere.
• The temperature of sun at the surface is 5800 K, at core it is 15.6*106 K
• It contains 99.8% of the total mass of our solar system.
Solar radiation
• Sun, a star has a diameter of 1.39*106 km
• What is the size of the earth?
• Comparatively 100 times smaller i.e. 1.27*106 km
• Then why the sun looks so small?
• Because of it’s distance from the earth
• The mean distance is 1.5*108 km ( known as 1 Astronomical Unit)
• This distance minimum in summer and maximum in winter.
• Why do we have summer or winter?
• Due to the elliptical orbit the earth makes around the sun.
Sun’s beam

• It subtends an angle of 32 minutes at the earth’s surface.

• So the earth receives almost parallel radiation from the sun.
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s standard value of
solar constant is 1353 W/m2
 Components of solar energy
• 46% infra red radiation (with wave length of more than 0.78 um)
• 46% visible light (with wave length of 0.39 to 0.78 um)
• 8 % ultraviolet radiation (with wave length of less than 0.39 um)
• Direct radiation is the radiation received at the earth’s surface
without change in direction and is called as beam radiation.
• The radiation received at the earth’s surface from all parts of the sky’s
hemisphere after being scatted in the atmosphere is called as diffuse
radiation.
• Sum of the beam and diffuse radiation is total or global radiation.
• It is also known as insolation at that point.
Forms of solar energy

• Direct radiation: directly from

the sun
• Diffused radiation: scattered by
suspended particles
• Global radiation: sum total of
direct & diffused radiation
Energy we receive from sun
• Absorption: it is defined as a
process in which solar radiation is
retained by a substance and
converted into heat energy.
• That heat energy will cause the
substance to emit its own
radiation. But only part of this
emission reaches the surface of the
earth.
• Reflection: it is a process where
sunlight is redirected 180⁰ after it
strikes the particle.
• Most of the reflection in our
atmosphere is caused by
suspended particles of liquid and
frozen water.
 Air mass
• It is the term used to assess the
distance travelled by beam
radiation through the
atmosphere before reaching a
location on the earth’s surface.
• It is the ratio of the path of the
sun’s rays through the
atmosphere to the length of the
path when the sun is directly
overhead i.e. the sun is at the
zenith.
• Just above the earth’s
atmosphere, m=0.
• When the sun is at zenith, m=1
Sun & earth geometric relationship

• Two major motions of the earth

affect solar radiation received on a
surface at any location:
• The rotation of the earth about its
polar axis which defines the day
• The orbit of the earth around the
sun which defines the year.
• Earth’s polar rotational axis is tilted
at a constant 23.5⁰ angle with
respect to the ecliptic plane.
 Types of collectors

• A solar thermal collector is a device where solar energy is collected

basically by absorbing the energy with the help of an absorber and
then the absorbed energy is transferred to a working fluid in contact
with the collector.
• Flat type collector has no optical concentration so simple in design and
has no moving parts. Collector area is the same as the absorber area.
• Flat type is further classified as liquid flat plate collector and air or gas
heating collector
Concentrating collectors
• It is device by which solar energy is collected with high intensity of solar
radiation on the absorbing surface.
• It comprises of concentrator and receiver.
• Concentrator is the optical system in the form of reflecting mirrors or
refracting lenses.
• The area intercepting sunshine is number of times more than the absorbed
area.
• Mirrors and lenses are used to concentrate the Sun’s rays on the absorber.
• The working fluid can be raised to 100⁰ C and above.
• Types of concentrating collector: focussing type and non-focussing type.
• In focussing type, optical system focuses the solar radiation onto the
absorber, while the in non-focusing type, the solar radiation is allowed to
fall on the absorber after using reflection in the mirror.
Geometry of collector
• Cylindrical parabolic trough reflectors are mostly used which collects
the solar radiation coming from the particular direction over the area
of the reflecting surface and concentrates at the focus of the
parabola.
• The reflector may be of continuous form or a number of line flat
mirror strips placed on a parabolic surface.
• The collector pipe is placed along the focus axis.
• Paraboloid dish collector is of point focussing type, the receiver is
placed at the focus point of the concentrator.
• A dish of 6m diameter is made from about 200 curved mirror
segments forming paraboloidal surface.
• The absorber made of Zirconium –copper alloy is placed at the focus.
Effects of atmosphere

• 30% of extra-terrestrial solar

power is absorbed or reflected
by the atmosphere before
reaching the earth’s surface.
• Effects vary significantly with
altitude, latitude, time of day
and year, air pollutants, weather
patters and wave length of solar
radiation.
Measurement
• Pyranometer: it is the most commonly used instrument to measure the
total radiation and also the diffuse radiation.
• It consists of a black body on which the hot junction of thermopile is
attached. The cold end is placed where it doesn’t get any radiation. As the
black body gets heated up emf generated is measured in the range of 0-10
mV
• By preventing the beam radiation falling on the instrument with the help of
a shading ring, the diffuse radiation can be measured.
• Pyrheliometer measures only the beam radiation.
• Sunshine recorder is used to measure the duration of bright sunshine in a
day.
• PC based radiation measurement system monitors thro’ Data Acquisition
System
Solar thermal
• Solar water heating systems of capacity from 1000 l/day to 100,000
litres/day
• Roof integrated solar air heating systems up to 400 sq. m. for
plantation crops, spices and pulses.
• Solar passive systems for space heating in cold climates
• Solar cookers for domestic and community cooking up to 10,000
persons.
• Solar distillation for labs, railways and automobiles, light houses etc.
Solar PV

• PV stands for photo voltaic cells.

• Roof top lighting for homes, schools and community centres.
• Pumping systems for pumping water to agriculture and commercial
use.
• 100 kW PV peak power being operated with grid interfacing or stand
alone with battery pack up
Uses of PV in rural areas

• Household: cooking, lighting, heating, cooling and water supply

• Agriculture: irrigation, crop drying, grain drying, seasoning of agro
products, kilns and solar desalination plants.
Solar water heating system
• It converts the solar energy into thermal energy.
• The system consists of
solar flat plate collector or set of collectors.
storage tank
Make up overhead tank
pipelines and circulation system.
Control system and
Auxiliary heating system.
• The system can be installed on roof tops, building terrace or open
grounds.
• It is used to produce hot water.
Types of SWHS Thermo-syphon system
• Water circulation is due to natural
convection.
• Due to the heating the density of
water reduces and so hot water leaves
the collector panel from the top.
• Cold water being of higher density
enters the panel at the bottom.
• When the solar energy is not available
circulation won’t be there.
• System is simple, less expensive and
needs very less maintenance.
• It is best suitable for domestic use
e.g.100 litres/day
• NOT suitable in freezing cold weather
– pipelines need to be drained to
prevent pipelines getting damaged.
Forced circulation water heating
systems

• Direct or open loop system

• Indirect or closed loop system
• In open loop system, water in the
system is exposed to atmosphere
thro’ the air space above water
level in the hot water tank or
elsewhere.
• Hard water is not suitable for this
system.
• Aux. heating(electrical) may be
required to maintain the required
temperature.
Closed loop system

• It is suitable where the hardness

of water is high.
• Primary system is filled with
non-freezing liquid, so nil
chances of collector tubes
getting scaled or chocked.
• Power consumption is more due
to the use of heat exchanger.
There is also a loss of efficiency
apart from the higher initial cost.
Sheltered and unsheltered heaters
Protect the heaters from the natural elements like wind et. Carrying
away the heat.
Solar air heaters
Solar kilns

• It is used for seasoning of wood,

timbers etc.
• It doesn’t produce any shrinking,
warping, bending of the timber.
• Drying process is faster.
• Higher quality of timber can be
achieved.
Desalination plants

• Solar water stills use a

transparent sloping cover over a
blackened surface.
• Collectors are placed beneath
the sloping surface.
• Production rate depends on
radiation amount, wind speed,
ambient temperature,
atmospheric humidity etc.
• Collectors may be flat plate or
parabolic concentrators.
 • Solar pumping system is used for pumping water for irrigation and drinking purpose.
• Solar cooling: solar energy can also used for refrigeration of food products and air
conditioning. Vapour absorption system is mostly in use.

Hot water from solar panels is sent to the generator

where it transfers the heat to a mixture of absorbent and
refrigerant.
Strong refrigerant vapour passes into condenser to get
liquefied.
Expansion valve throttles the liquid reducing its pressure
as well temperature.
Cool refrigerant gets vaporised as it passes over the
evaporator coils.
Refrigerant vapour is then absorbed in the absorber, into
a weak solution coming from generator.
This strong solution is pumped back into generator, thus
completing the cycle.
Other uses of solar power
Need of solar ponds
• To reduce the initial cost
• To optimize colleting surface area
• To overcome the natural convectional current which prevents the rise
in temperature of water in open areas.
• A salt solution is maintained to have a definite concentration
gradient.
• It has three distinct layers
(i) surface convection zone ( a thin layer of 10-20mm thick)
(ii) gradient zone (almost half of the depth)
(iii) lower convective zone (almost half of the depth)
• The tank is about 1-2 meters deep.
• Bottom of the tank is covered with a Solar ponds
thick plastic liner.
• Sides are lined with low density
polyethylene.
• Salts like sodium chloride or
magnesium chloride is added to the
water to make the concentration at
the bottom to 20-30% compared to 0
% at the top.
• Due to the upward diffusion of salt,
fresh water is continuously added,
while saline water is run off thro’ an
outlet.
• Concentrated brine is added at the
bottom to maintain the concentration.
• Heat from the bottom layer is tapped
thro’ a heat exchanger located
externally or as submerged coil.
Solar thermal power plant
• Energy collected from solar • It may be classified as
ponds etc. is used to increase • Low temperature cycles using
the temperature of the fluid flat plate collectors/solar ponds
used in Brayton or Rankine cycle.
• Medium and high temperature
• The mechanical power thus cycles using parabolic collector
developed is converted to
electrical power. • High temperature systems using
parabolic dish collectors
• Distributed collector systems
Photo voltaic cells
• Light travels in pockets of energy called as photons.
• Photo voltaic effect can be defined as the generation of a potential when light (photon)
radiation strikes the barrier of a semi conductor p-n junction.
• Generation of electric current happens inside the depletion zone of p-n junction.
• Depletion zone is the area around p-n junction where the electrons from N have diffused
into the holes of P type material.
• When a photon of light is absorbed by one of these atoms in the N-Type silicon it will
dislodge an electron, creating a free electron and a hole.
• The free electron and hole has sufficient energy to jump out of the depletion zone.
• If a wire is connected from the cathode (N-type silicon) to the anode (P-type silicon)
electrons will flow through the wire.
• The electron is attracted to the positive charge of the P-type material and travels through
the external load (meter) creating a flow of electric current.
• The hole created by the dislodged electron is attracted to the negative charge of N-type
material and migrates to the back electrical contact.
• As the electron enters the P-type silicon from the back electrical contact it combines with
the hole restoring the electrical neutrality.
P V cell
• It is also known as remote area Stand alone power system
power supply (RAPS), is an off the
grid electricity systems for locations
that are not fitted with an
electricity distribution system.
Typical SAPS include one or more
methods of generation and storage
of electricity.
• It is independent of the grid system
and may use solar panels in
conjunction with a diesel generator,
a wind turbine or a battery pack.
• Generally a battery pack is
provided.
• Low voltage AC can be generated
by installing an invertor.
• It is a solar PV power system that is Grid connected power system
connected to the grid.
• It can be used for small residential
to large utility scale.
• A grid-connected PV system
consists of solar panels, one or
several inverters, a power
conditioning unit and grid
connection equipment
• Under favourable conditions, PV
system can supply the excess
power to the utility grid.
• It may also draw from the grid
when the conditions are not
favourable.
• Stand by battery arrangement is
not an essential requirement.
Adaptation of PV cells

• Structures to be made to withstand heavy wind forces.

• Panels to be well ventilated to reduce the temperature rise.
• Avoid shaded areas or have a tracking system in use.
• Avoid areas with dust or dirt
Various forms of silicon used in PV cells

• First generation cells are the most widely known make use of
crystalline silicon also known as "solar grade silicon". These cells are
entirely based around the concept of PV junction.
• Solar cells made of c-Si are made from wafers between 160 and
240 micro meters thick.
• Second generation cells use amorphous silicon in thin film solar cells.
Thin-film technologies reduce the amount of active material in a cell.
Most designs sandwich active material between two panes of glass.
Limits to cell efficiency
• Maximum theoretical efficiency of a solar cell using a single P-N junction is 33.7%
• It is less than that for a silicon at 32%
• Most commercial mono-crystalline solar cell have about 24% only.
• Any material which is not at absolute zero (0 K) emits electromagnetic radiation
through black body radiation effect.
• So in normal room temperature the outgoing radiation of the cell is a loss which
gets converted into heat.
• At higher temperature the loss becomes higher.
• Silicon has a conduction band of 1.1eV away from the valence band.
• It corresponds to infra red wave length of 1.1microns.
• Any energy above and beyond the band gap also is a loss as the higher amount of
energy is lost as heat without causing a flow of electrons.
Problems

• Q1: A home in Phoenix (Arizona) requires 62 kWh of heat on a winter day to

maintain a constant indoor temperature of 20 °C. How much collector surface
area does it need for an all-solar heating system that has a 20% efficiency?
(Where, at 32 °N the average solar radiation in winter is about 6.5 kWh/m2/day.)
• Insolation= 6.5 kWh/m2/day
• Requirement= 62kWh
• Surface area required= 62/(6.5*0.2)=47m2
• Q2: Calculate the solar car output for a given roof area of 1.4m2. Find
the power available assuming total cell efficiency as 17% and
unsheltered light intensity as 980W/m2
• Power available= 980*0.17*1.4=233.24W
• A wind mill is used to pump 3.03 m3/hr of water through a head of
28m. Wind speed of 3.3m/s rotor dia 4.5m calculate the power
coefficient assuming turbine efficiency as 95% pump efficiency as 70%
and density of water as 996kg.m3
• Ans: