Prof. Shrikant M.

Harle,
Assistant Professor,
Department of Civil Engg & member, Innovation &
Entrepreneurship Development Centre (IEDC)
Different classification for
dams
 The construction of dams ranks with the earliest and most
fundamental of civil engineering activities.
 All great civilizations have been identified with the
construction of storage reservoirs appropriate to their
needs, in the earliest instances to satisfy irrigation
demands arising through the development and expansion
of organized agriculture.
 Operating within constraints imposed by local
circumstance, notably climate and terrain, the economic
power of successive civilizations was related to proficiency
in water engineering.
 Prosperity, health and material progress became
increasingly linked to the ability to store and direct water.
 In an international context, the proper and timely
utilization of water resources remains one of the most
vital contributions made to society by the civil
engineer.
 Dam construction represents a major investment in
basic infrastructure within all nations.
 The annual completion rate for dams of all sizes
continues at a very high level in many countries, e.g.
China, Turkey and India, and to a lesser degree in
some more heavily industrialized nations including
the United States.
 Dams are individually unique structures. Irrespective
of size and type they demonstrate great complexity in
their load response and in their interactive
relationship with site hydrology and geology.
 In recognition of this, and reflecting the relatively
indeterminate nature of many major design inputs,
dam engineering is not a stylized and formal science.
 As practised, it is a highly specialist activity which
draws upon many scientific disciplines and balances
them with a large element of engineering judgement;
dam engineering is thus a uniquely challenging and
stimulating field of endeavour.
 The primary purpose of a dam may be defined as to
provide for the safe retention and storage of water.
 As a corollary to this every dam must represent a
design solution specific to its site circumstances.
 The design therefore also represents an optimum
balance of local technical and economic
considerations at the time of construction.
 Reservoirs are readily classified in accordance with
their primary purpose, e.g. irrigation, water supply,
hydroelectric power generation, river regulation, flood
control, etc.
 Dams differ from all other major civil engineering structures in a
number of important regards:
 every dam, large or small, is quite unique; foundation geology,
material characteristics, catchment flood hydrology etc. are each
site specific.
 dams are required to function at or close to their design loading
for extended periods.
 dams do not have a structural lifespan; they may, however, have a
notional life for accounting purposes, or a functional lifespan
dictated by reservoir sedimentation.
 the overwhelming majority of dams are of earthfill, constructed
from a range of natural soils; these are the least consistent of
construction materials.
 dam engineering draws together a range of disciplines, e.g.
structural and fluid mechanics, geology and geotechnics, flood
hydrology and hydraulics, to a quite unique degree.
 the engineering of dams is critically dependent upon the
application of informed engineering judgement.
 Dams are of numerous types, and type classification is
sometimes less clearly defined. An initial broad
classification into two generic groups can be made in
terms of the principal construction material employed.
 Embankment dams are constructed of earthfill
and/or rockfill. Upstream and downstream face slopes
are similar and of moderate angle, giving a wide
section and a high construction volume relative to
height.
 Concrete dams are constructed of mass concrete.
Face slopes are dissimilar, generally steep downstream
and near vertical upstream, and dams have relatively
slender profiles dependent upon the type.
 Embankment dams can be of many types, depending upon
how they utilize the available materials. The initial
classification into earthfill or rockfill embankments
provides a convenient basis for considering the principal
variants employed.
 Earthfill embankments: An embankment may be
categorized as an earthfill dam if compacted soils account
for over 50% of the placed volume of material. An earthfill
dam is constructed primarily of selected engineering soils
compacted uniformly and intensively in relatively thin
layers and at a controlled moisture content.
 Rockfill embankments: In the rockfill embankment
the section includes a discrete impervious element of
compacted earthfill or aslender concrete or
bituminous membrane. The designation ‘rockfill
embankment’ is appropriate where over 50% of the fill
material may be classified as rockfill, i.e. coarse-
grained frictional material.
 The terms ‘zoned rockfill dam’ or ‘earthfill–rockfill
dam’ are used to describe rockfill embankments
incorporating relatively wide impervious zones of
compacted earthfill.
 Rockfill embankments employing a thin upstream
membrane of asphaltic concrete, reinforced concrete
or other manufactured material are referred to as
‘decked rockfill dams’.
 The embankment dam possesses many outstanding
merits which combine to ensure its continued
dominance as a generic type. The more important can
be summarized as follows:
 the suitability of the type to sites in wide valleys and
relatively steep sided gorges alike;
 adaptability to a broad range of foundation conditions,
ranging from competent rock to soft and compressible
or relatively pervious soil formations;
 the use of natural materials, minimizing the need to
import or transport large quantities of processed
materials or cement to the site;
 subject to satisfying essential design criteria, the
embankment design is extremely flexible in its ability
to accommodate different fill materials, e.g. earthfills
and/or rockfills, if suitably zoned internally;
 the construction process is highly mechanized and is
effectively continuous;
 largely in consequence of 5, the unit costs of earthfill
and rockfill have risen much more slowly in real terms
than those for mass concrete;
 properly designed, the embankment can safely
accommodate an appreciable degree of deformation
and settlement without risk of serious cracking and
possible failure.
Tehri Dam – Bhakra Nangal Hirakud Dam - NagarjunaSagar Sardar Sarovar
Uttaranchal Dam -Himachal Orissa Dam -Andhra Dam -Gujarat
Pradesh Pradesh

Height: 260 Height: 226 Height: 60.96 Height: 124 Height: 163
meters meters meters meters meters
Length: 575 Length: 520 Length: 25.8 Length:1,450 Length:1,210
meters meters km meters meters
Type: Earth and Type: Concrete Type: Composit Type: Masonry Type: Gravity
rock-fill gravity e Dam Dam Dam
Reservoir Capa Reservoir Capa Reservoir Capa Reservoir Capa Reservoir
city: 2,100,000 city: 7,501,775 city: 4,779,965 city: 9,371,845 Capacity: 7,701,
acre·ft acre·ft acre·ft acre·ft 775 acre·ft
River: Bhagirat River: Sutlej River: Mahanad River: Krishna River: Narmada
hi River River i River River River
Location: Uttar Location: Punja Location: Oriss Location: Andh Location: Gujar
akhand b and Himachal a ra Pradesh at
Installed Pradesh Installed Installed Installed
capacity: 1,000 Installed capacity: 307.5 capacity: 816 capacity: 1,450
MW capacity: 1325 MW MW MW
MW
Concrete dam types and
characteristics
 Gravity dams: A concrete gravity dam is entirely
dependent upon its own mass for stability. The gravity
profile is essentially triangular, to ensure stability and
to avoid overstressing of the dam or its foundation.
Some gravity dams are gently curved in plan for
aesthetic or other reasons, and without placing any
reliance upon arch action for stability. Where a limited
degree of arch action is deliberately introduced in
design, allowing a rather slimmer profile, the term
arched or arch-gravity dam may be employed
 Buttress dams: In structural concept the buttress
dam consists of a continuous upstream face supported
at regular intervals by downstream buttresses. The
solid head or massive buttress dam is the most
prominent modern variant of the type, and may be
considered for conceptual purposes as a lightened
version of the gravity dam.
 Arch dams: The arch dam has a considerable
upstream curvature. Structurally it functions primarily
as a horizontal arch, transmitting the major portion of
the water load to the abutments or valley sides rather
than to the floor of the valley. A relatively simple arch,
i.e. with horizontal curvature only and a constant
upstream radius.
 It is structurally more efficient than the gravity or
buttress dam, greatly reducing the volume of concrete
required. A particular derivative of the simple arch
dam is the cupola or double curvature arch dam
 The cupola dam introduces complex curvatures in the
vertical as well as the horizontal plane. It is the most
sophisticated of concrete dams, being essentially a
dome or shell structure, and is extremely economical
in concrete.
 Abutment stability is critical to the structural integrity
and safety of both the cupola and the simple arch.
 Other concrete dams: They include hollow gravity,
decked buttress, flat slab (Ambursen) buttress,
multiple arch, and multiple cupola dams, The type
names are self-explanatory, and the structural
parentage of each as a derivative of one or other of the
principal types
 Merits shared by most concrete dams include the
following:
 Arch and cupola dams excepted, concrete dams are
suitable to the site topography of wide or narrow
valleys alike, provided that a competent rock
foundation is accessible at moderate depth (<5m).
 Concrete dams are not sensitive to overtopping
under extreme flood conditions (the embankment
dam).
 all concrete dams can accommodate a crest
spillway, if necessary over their entire length,
provided that steps are taken to control downstream
erosion and possible undermining of the dam. The
cost of a separate spillway and channel are therefore
avoided.
 Outlet pipework, valves and other ancillary works are
readily and safely housed in chambers or galleries
within the dam.
 The inherent ability to withstand seismic
disturbance without catastrophic collapse is generally
high.
 The cupola or double-curvature arch dam is an
extremely strong and efficient structure, given a
narrow valley with competent abutments.
 A comparison of the general characteristics of concrete
dams with those of the embankment dam suggests the
following inherent disadvantages for the former.
 Concrete dams are relatively demanding with respect
to foundation conditions, requiring sound and
stable rock.
 Concrete dams require processed natural materials
of suitable quality and quantity for aggregate, and the
importation to site and storage of bulk cement and
other materials.
 Traditional mass concrete construction is relatively
slow, being labour intensive and discontinuous, and
requires certain skills, e.g. for formwork, concreting,
etc.
 Completed unit costs for mass concrete, i.e. cost per
cubic metre, are very much higher than for
embankment fills, typically by an order of magnitude
or more. This is seldom counterbalanced by the much
lower volumes of concrete required in a dam of given
height.
Site assessment and selection of
type of dam
 A satisfactory site for a reservoir must fulfil certain
functional and technical requirements. Functional
suitability of a site is governed by the balance between its
natural physical characteristics and the purpose of the
reservoir.
 Catchment hydrology, available head and storage
volume etc. must be matched to operational parameters
set by the nature and scale of the project served.
 Technical acceptability is dictated by the presence of a
satisfactory site (or sites) for a dam, the availability of
materials suitable for dam construction, and by the
integrity of the reservoir basin with respect to leakage.
 The hydrological and geological or geotechnical
characteristics of catchment and site are the
principal determinants establishing the technical
suitability of a reservoir site.
 The considerable time which can elapse between
initial strategic planning, with identification of the
project requirement, and commencement of
construction on site will be noted.
 A significant proportion of that time may be
attributable to the ‘political’ decision-making
processes and to arranging project funding.
 In the reconnaissance phase, which may extend over a
substantial period, the principal objective is to collect
extensive topographical, geological and
hydrological survey data.
 Large-scale maps and any records already available
provide the starting point, but much more detailed
surveys will inevitably be required.
 Aerial reconnaissance, employing modern sensors in
addition to the traditional photogrammetric survey
techniques, has a particular role to play in the
reparation of accurate and large-scale site plans (e.g.
1:5000 and larger).
 In the hands of an experienced engineering geologist as
interpreter, aerial surveys also provide valuable
information on geology, on possible dam sites and on the
likely availability of construction materials.
 Hydrological catchment and river surveys are directed to
determining rainfall and run-off characteristics, and assessing
historical evidence of floods etc.
 The feasibility report prepared at the conclusion of the
reconnaissance phase assembles and interprets all available
information, data and records, and makes initial
recommendations with respect to the technical and economic
viability of the reservoir.
 Options with regard to the location, height and type of
dam are set out, and comparisons drawn in terms of estimated
costs and construction programmes.
 Within the latter, account must be taken of the resource
implications of each, i.e. financial outlay, labour and plant
requirements etc.
Dam site evaluation
 The feasibility of the preferred dam site identified
in a reservoir feasibility study must be positively
established. Extensive investigations are conducted to
confirm that the site can be developed on the desired
scale and at acceptable cost.
 The nature of the soil and rock formations present,
critical to foundation integrity, must be proved by
subsurface exploration.
 Emphasis is placed upon confirmation of site geology
and geotechnical characteristics, and on the
evaluation of sources of construction materials
 Foundation competence is determined by stability,
load-carrying capacity, deformability, and effective
impermeability.
 All are assessed in relation to the type and size of
dam proposed in the case of a difficult site, the site
evaluation programme can be extended and expensive.
 Expenditure may be of the order of 1% up to,
exceptionally, 2.5 or 3% of the anticipated cost of the
dam. The scope of individual aspects of an
investigation reflects circumstances unique to the site.
 The investigation may also relate to a specific type of
dam if site conditions are such that options are
restricted, e.g. by depth of overburden
Geological and geotechnical
investigations
 Geological and geotechnical investigation of a dam site
selected for detailed evaluation is directed to
 determination of geological structure,
 stratigraphy,
 faulting,
 foliation and jointing, and
 to establishing ground and
 groundwater conditions adjacent to the dam site,
including the abutments.
The general objectives of these and allied
investigations are
 To determine engineering parameters which can
reliably be used to evaluate stability of the dam
foundation and, on compressible foundations, i.e.
soils, to estimate probable settlement and
deformation,
 The determination of seepage patterns and
parameters enabling assessment of the probable
seepage regime, including quantities and pressures,
and
 To confirm the containment integrity of the reservoir
basin and the stability of its margins.
 confirmation of the nature, suitability and
availability of natural construction materials,
including the determination of design parameters for
fill materials etc.
 General features to be identified and defined in the course
of the site investigation include the interface between soil
and rock,
 groundwater conditions,
 unstable and caving ground, e.g. karstic formations etc.,
and
 all significant discontinuities, i.e. rock faults, shatter zones,
 Fissured or heavily fractured rock and
 the spacing and other characteristics of jointing and
 bedding surfaces etc. within the rock mass.
Key features of the investigation
include
 particular classification of all natural and excavated
exposures and borehole records, etc.,
 Careful correlation between all exposures, boreholes
and other data, and
 Excavation of additional trial pits, boreholes, shafts
and exploratory as considered necessary.
 It is at this stage that more extensive geophysical and
in situ testing programmes may also be conducted,
with the primary intention of extending and validating
borehole and laboratory data.
 A further purpose of field testing at this time is
confirmation of the natural groundwater regime,
e.g. through installation of piezometers, pumping
tests, etc
 Extensive use is made of rotary drilling and coring
techniques to establish the rock structure at depth
and to confirm its competence.
 Core recovery is a crude but useful index of rock
quality, e.g. in terms of rock quality designation
(RQD) (i.e. total recovered core in lengths of over 10
cm as a percentage of total borehole depth; RQD70 is
generally indicative of sound rock)
 In situ tests, e.g. for permeability, strength and
deformability, are used to estimate rock mass
characteristics in preference to small-scale laboratory
sample testing wherever possible.
 All cores are systematically recorded and should
ideally be retained indefinitely.
 Drilling, sampling and testing techniques are
essentially those employed in conventional site
investigation practice.
 Evaluation of seismic risk for an important dam
requires identification of the regional geological
structure, with particular attention being paid to fault
complexes.
 Activity or inactivity within recent geological history
will require to be established from study of historical
records and field reconnaissance.
 If historical records of apparent epicentres can be
matched to key geological structures it is possible to
make a probabilistic assessment of seismic risk in
terms of specific intensities of seismic event.
Foundation investigations
 Foundation competence of the dam site must be
assessed in terms of stability, load-carrying
capacity, compressibility (soils) or deformability
(rocks), and effective mass permeability.
 The investigative techniques to be adopted will
depend upon the geomorphology and geology of the
specific site.
Dams on competent stiff clays and
weathered rocks
 Serious under seepage is unlikely to be a problem in
extensive and uniform deposits of competent clay.
 It is important, however, to identify and consider the
influence of inter-bedded thin and more permeable
horizons which may be present, e.g. silt lenses, fine
laminations, etc.
 Considerable care is required in the examination of
recovered samples to detect all such features.
 The determination of appropriate shear strength
parameters for evaluating foundation stability is of
major importance.
Dams on pervious foundations
 Seepage-associated problems are normally
dominant where a dam is to be founded on a relatively
pervious foundation.
 In a high proportion of such instances the soil
conditions are very complex, with permeable and
much less permeable horizons present and closely
inter-bedded.
Dams on rock foundations
 The nature of the investigation is dependent upon
whether an embankment or a concrete dam is
proposed.
 Where the decision is still open, the investigation
must cover either option; both require a full
understanding of the site geology.
Materials for dam construction
 Initial exploration for sources of materials is
conducted by a combination of surface and aerial
reconnaissance in conjunction with extensive
geological surveys.
 Potential borrow areas or aggregate sources so
revealed must be thoroughly evaluated in terms of
the suitability of the materials they contain for
different purposes, e.g. core material, material for
shoulder zones and filters etc. or for aggregates.
 The quantities which can be realized from a source
must also be estimated.
 Geophysical methods can play a useful part in this
latter process, but they must always be correlated with
hard evidence from natural or trial exposures or from
conventional drilling programmes.
 Investigation of the suitability of an earthfill or rockfill
material will invariably justify
 an instrumented trial fill,
 which can provide much invaluable data on physical
characteristics,
 compaction characteristics and
 plant performance, and
 on geotechnical design parameter
Selection of type of dam
 The optimum type of dam for a specific site is
determined by estimates of cost and construction
programme for all design solutions which are
technically valid.
 Hydraulic gradient: the nominal value of hydraulic
gradient, i, for seepage under, around or through a
dam varies by at least one order of magnitude
according to type.
 Foundation stress: nominal stresses transmitted to
the foundation vary greatly with dam type.
 Foundation deformability: certain types of dams are
better able to accommodate appreciable foundation
deformation and/or settlement without serious
damage.
 Foundation excavation: economic considerations
dictate that the excavation volume and foundation
preparation should be minimized.
Design features of dams which can have major implications with
regard to construction programming and costs include
 cut-offs,
 spillway systems, including channels and stilling basins,
 internal drainage systems,
 internal culverts, galleries, etc.,
 foundation preparation, including excavation and
grouting, etc.,
 construction details, e.g. transitions or filters in
embankments or contraction joint details in concrete
dams,
 gates, valves and bottom outlet works, and
 river diversion works