DATA MANAGEMENT

Data base concepts

 DATA MANAGEMENT
 Data management ..most difficult challenges
facing today's organizations
 Helps improve productivity..people can find
what they need without having to conduct
long & difficult search.
 Goal of data management is to provide
infrastructure & tools to transform raw data
into usable corporate information of highest
quality.
 Data ..organizations informational assets
 How you manage financial assets similarly
manage data assets.
 WHY????????? To maximize earnings companies
invest in data management technologies that
increase:
 Opportunity to earn revenues(CRM)
 Ability to cut expenses(inventory management)
 Managers need rapid access to correct ,
comprehensive & consistent data across
enterprise to improve business processes &
performance.
 Make decisions , serve customers based on
data available to them
 DATABASE or DATAWAREHOUSE
 Databases store enterprise data that their
business applications create or generate such
as sales , accounting & employee data.
 Data entering databases from POS terminals,
online sales other sources stored in organized
format so that they can be managed &
retrieved.
 Viability of business decisions depends on
access to high quality data & quality data
depends on effective approaches to data
management.
 Information workers…constrained by data
that cannot be trusted…incomplete , out of
context,outdated,inaccurate,inaccesible ,
may require weeks to analyze.
 Decision maker facing uncertainty to make
intelligent decisions.
 Data errors & inconsistencies..lead to
mistakes & lost opportunities..failed
deliveries, invoicing blunders ,problems
synchronizing data from multiple locations.
 In addition data analysis errors…resulted
from use of inaccurate formulas or untested
models.
 In retail sector cost of errors due to
unreliable data..$40 billion annually
 Healthcare industry…cost of errors billion
dollars & thousands of lives.
SO DATA MANAGEMENT IS ALL
ABOUT
 DESIGN OF INFRASTUCTURE TO PROVIDE EMPLOYEES
WITH COMPLETE TIMELY ACCURATE ACCESSIBLE
UNDERSTANDABLE & RELEVANT DATA.
 Is a structured approach for capturing , storing ,
processing ,integrating ,distributing ,securing &
archiving data effectively throughout their life
cycle.
 Life cycle…identifies the way data travel through
an organization from their capture or creation to
their use in supporting data driven solutions such as
SCM,CRM,EC….enterprise applications that require
current & readily accessible data to function
properly.
BASIC DATABASE TERMS
 0 or 1......bit
 Collection of 8 bits........ A byte/character
 E.g.: A....
 Collection of bytes/characters....
Field/column
 E.g.: CODE, NAME, ADDRESS,DEPT
NAME,CITY are examples of field
 Record/Row: A record is a collection of
multiple fields that can be related as a unit.
 In database terminology each row is a
record.
 Table/ File : collection of logically related
multiple records.. E.g.: A collection of all
the employee records of a company would be
an employee file.
 Every record in a file has same set of fields
 Database is a collection of multiple related
files (tables).{logical group of related files}
 Records of all non-commercial customers
who have a mortgage loan at a financial
institution would constitute a data file.
 All customer loan files, such as mortgages &
auto ,personal & home equity loans could be
grouped to create a non-commercial loan
database.
Organizing Data in a Traditional File Environment

THE DATA
HIERARCHY
A computer system organizes
data in a hierarchy that starts
with the bit, which represents
either a 0 or a 1. Bits can be
grouped to form a byte to
represent one character,
number, or symbol. Bytes can
be grouped to form a field,
and related fields can be
grouped to form a record.
Related records can be
collected to form a file, and
related files can be organized
into a database.

FIGURE 6-1
LOGICAL DATA CONCEPTS: REFERS TO
THE MANNER IN WHICH DATA IS VIEWED BY THE PROGRAMMER
OR END USER / WAY USER DESCRIBES REALITY

 Entity: is an object that has its existence in

the real world.(record describes an entity)
 Includes all those things about which data is
collected.
 Entity: tangible....Student/non
tangible...job title
 Customer buys goods
ATTRIBUTE
 Each characteristic describing entity is
attribute.
 In a database..entities represented by
tables..attributes by columns.
 Each record in a database needs an
attribute(field) to uniquely identify it so that
record can be retrieved ,updated &
sorted……PRIMARY KEY
 Student_ID…PRIMARY KEY
 It is usually numeric
 SECONDARY KEYS: nonunique fields that have
some identifying information
 FOREIGN KEYS: keys whose purpose is to link
two or more tables together
RELATIONSHIP
 Is an association , dependency or link
between two or more entities & is
represented by diamond symbol.
BINARY RELATIONSHIP TYPES:
ONE TO ONE RELATIONSHIP
 One record in a table is related to only one
record in another table.
 A department cannot be headed by more
than one departmental head
ONE TO MANY RELATIONSHIP
 One record in a table (parent table) can be
related to many records in another
table(child table)
MANY TO MANY RELATIONSHIP
 One record in table can be related to one or
ore records in another table, & one or more
records in the second table can be related to
one or more records in the first table.
PHYSICAL DATA CONCEPTS: REFER TO
THE MANNER IN WHICH DATA IS PHYSICALLY STORED ON THE
HARDWARE(ACCESSING RECORDS FROM COMPUTER FILES)

 Sequential file ORGANIZATION: Arrangement

determines how individual records can be
accessed & how long it takes to access them.
(operation like tape recorder)
 Direct file organization or random file
organization: access to any record directly
without having to traverse the sequence of
records (DVD Drive)
 Magnetic tape uses sequential file
organization
 Magnetic disks use direct file organization
INDEXED SEQUENTIAL ACCESS METHOD

 Uses an index of key fields to locate individual

records.
 An index to a file lists the key field of each record
& where the record is physically located on
storage media.
 Records are stored on disks in their key sequence.
 To locate a specific record system looks at the
index(track index) to locate general
location(identified by cylinder & track numbers)
containing the record.
 Then points to beginning of that track & reads the
records sequentially until it finds correct record.
FILE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
 Computer system essentially organizes data
into hierarchy that begins with bits &
proceeds to bytes,fields,records,files &
databases.
 Bit..smallest unit for representing data..0 or
1
 8bits…byte(10101101).represents single
character
 Characters combined…group of words…field
 Key characteristic of a field..All of entries
are related in some way
 Cust_name contains names of customers not
their number or address
 Related fields..vendor name,address,account
data constitute a record
 Collection of related records.. File or Data
file(records of all customers who have a
mortgage loan..data file)
 Logical group of related files..DATABASE..(All
customer loan files such as mortgages &
auto, personal & home equity loans..grouped
to create noncommercial loan database)
 LIMITATIONS OF DATA FILE
ENVIRONMENT
 Organizations when began to automate
processes they started with one application at a
time usually accounting, billing or payroll
 Each application designed to be standalone
system worked independently of other
applications
 Eg: For each pay period Payroll application
would use its own employee & wage data to
calculate & process payroll
 No application would use those data without
manual intervention.
 This data file approach led to redundancy.
Organizing Data in a Traditional File Environment

TRADITIONAL FILE PROCESSING

The use of a traditional approach to file processing encourages each functional area in a
FIGURE 6-2 corporation to develop specialized applications. Each application requires a unique data
file that is likely to be a subset of the master file. These subsets of the master file lead to
data redundancy and inconsistency, processing inflexibility, and wasted storage resources.
LIMITATIONS OF DATA FILE
ENVIRONMENT
 Data redundancy: Data duplicated in several
files..loan example each data file contains
records about customers loans . Many of
these customers will be represented in other
data files.
 Wastes physical storage media
 Difficult to obtain comprehensive view of
customers
 Increases costs of entering & maintaining
data
LIMITATIONS OF DATA FILE
ENVIRONMENT
 Data inconsistency: Actual data values are
not synchronized across various copies of the
data.
 Financial institution having customers with
several loans..each loan there is a file
containing customer fields(e.g
name,address,email,telephone number)
 Change in customer address in only one file
creates inconsistencies with address field in
other files.
LIMITATIONS OF DATA FILE
ENVIRONMENT
 Data isolation: File organization creates silos
of data making it extremely difficult to
access data from different applications
 Eg: A manager who wants to know which
products customers are buying & which
customers owe more than $1000 not be able
from a data file system.
 To get results he have to filter & integrate
data manually from multiple files.
LIMITATIONS OF DATA FILE
ENVIRONMENT
 Data security:
 Lack of data integrity
 Data concurrency..one application updating
a record another accessing same record
simultaneously. To prevent concurrency
applications & data need to be independent
of one another.
 File environment applications & data
dependent
 To tackle with these problems..development
of databases & DBMS
Organizing Data in a Traditional File Environment

 Problems with the traditional file environment (files maintained

separately by different departments)
Data redundancy:
 Presence of duplicate data in multiple files
Data inconsistency:
 Same attribute has different values
Program-data dependence:
 When changes in program requires changes to data accessed by

program
Lack of flexibility
Poor security
Lack of data sharing and availability
DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
 A program that provides access to databases
 DBMS permits an organization to centralize
data ,manage them efficiently & provide
access to the stored data by application
programs.
 Range in size & capabilities from simple
Microsoft Access to full featured Oracle &
DB2 solutions.
 DBMS acts as interface between application
programs & physical data files.
 Provides users with tools to add
,delete,maintain,display,print,search,select,
sort & update data.
 These tools range from easy to use natural
language interfaces to complex programming
languages used for developing sophisticated
database applications.
ADVANTAGES & CAPABILITIES OF
DBMS
 Permanence
 Querying
 Concurrency (transactions & locking)
 Backup & replication
 Rule enforcement
 Security
 Computation
 Change & access logging
 Automated optimization
 Companies use DBMSs in a broad range of IS.
 Some DBMS like access can be loaded onto
single users computer & accessed in adhoc
manner to support individual decision making.
 Others like IBMs DB2 are located on multiple
interconnected mainframe computers to support
large scale TPSs such as order entry & inventory
control systems.
 DBMSs like Oracle 11g are interconnected
throughout an organizations LAN(private
networks managed & owned by organization)
giving departments access to corporate data.
 A DBMS enables different users to share data
& process resources
 HOW?? Single unified database meet
different requirements of so many users??
 How single database be structured so that
sales personnel can view customer ,
inventory & production maintenance data
while HR department maintains restricted
access to private personnel data?
The Database Approach to Data Management

HUMAN RESOURCES DATABASE WITH MULTIPLE VIEWS

A single human resources database provides many different views of data, depending on the
FIGURE 6-3 information requirements of the user. Illustrated here are two possible views, one of interest
to a benefits specialist and one of interest to a member of the company’s payroll
department.
 DBMS provides 2 views of data: PHYSICAL
VIEW & A LOGICAL VIEW
 PHYSICAL VIEW..deals with actual physical
arrangement & location of data in the
DASDs(Direct access storage devices).
 Database specialist use physical view to
configure storage & processing resources.
 Business user is interested in using the
information not in how it is stored.
 LOGICAL or USERs view of data is meaningful to
the user.
 DBMS provides endless logical views of the data.
 This feature allows users to see data from
business-related perspective rather than from
technical viewpoint.
 Way in which you see the data(logical view) can
vary but storage of data(physical view) is fixed.
The Database Approach to Data Management

 Relational DBMS
Represent data as two-dimensional tables called relations or
files
Each table contains data on entity and attributes
 Table: grid of columns and rows
Rows (tuples): Records for different entities
Fields (columns): Represents attribute for entity
Key field: Field used to uniquely identify each record
Primary key: Field in table used for key fields
Foreign key: Primary key used in second table as look-up field to
identify records from original table
The Database Approach to Data Management

RELATIONAL DATABASE TABLES

A relational database organizes data in the form of two-dimensional tables. Illustrated here
are tables for the entities SUPPLIER and PART showing how they represent each entity and
FIGURE 6-4 its attributes. Supplier Number is a primary key for the SUPPLIER table and a foreign key for
the PART table.
The Database Approach to Data Management

RELATIONAL DATABASE TABLES (cont.)

FIGURE 6-4 A relational database organizes data in the form of two-dimensional tables. Illustrated here
(cont.) are tables for the entities SUPPLIER and PART showing how they represent each entity and
its attributes. Supplier Number is a primary key for the SUPPLIER table and a foreign key for
the PART table.
TYPES OF DATABASES
 Data flow into companies from many
sources..clickstream data from web,e-
commerce applications,POS
terminals,filtered data from CRM,Supply
chain,ERP applications
 Two basic types of databases:
 Centralized databases
 Distributed databases
CENTRALIZED DATABASES
 Stores all related files in one physical
location.
 Decades main database platform consisted
centralized database files on large,
mainframe because of enormous capital &
operating costs associated with alternative
systems.
 Application processing is shared between
numerous clients & a server...DB/2 from IBM
& Oracle server from Oracle
CENTRALIZED DATABASE
CENTRALIZED DATABASES
 Advantages: Multiple processors are applied
to overall task , back end & front end are
being done in parallel. Thus response time &
throughput are improved.
 Different clients able to access same server
machine
 Files made more consistent with one
another..physically kept at one location..file
changes made in supervised & orderly
fashion.
 Files are not accessible except via
centralized host computer where they can be
protected more easily from unauthorized
access or modification.
 Vulnerable to single point failure.
CENTRALISED DATABASE
 Disadvantages: Since all data is stored at one
place any discrepancy may result in database
corruption
 Server must be able to grow in power &
capacity to accommodate more clients
otherwise it will become bottleneck.
 Centralised computing is more complex
because proper processing requires close
communication between clients & server
hence specialised & expensive tools are
necessary.
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE
 A distributed database has complete copies
of a database or portions of a database.
Two types:
 Replicated
 partitioned
PARTITIONED DATABASE
 Partitioned: Separate locations store different
parts of database(part that meets users local
needs)
 Partitioned databases provide response speed of
localized files without need to replicate all
changes in multiple locations.
 Data in files can be entered more quickly & kept
more accurate by users immediately responsible
for the data.
DISADVANTAGE OF
PARTITIONED DATABASE
 Widespread access to potentially sensitive
company data can significantly increase
security problems.
REPLICATED DATABASE
 Stores complete copies of entire database in
multiple locations.
 Arrangement provides backup in case of a failure
or problem
 Improves response time as it is closer to users
 Expensive to set up & maintain..replica must be
updated as records are added to, modified in &
deleted from any of the databases.
 Updates may be done at end of day or other
schedule as determined by business needs
 If not done various databases will have conflicting
data.
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE
 Distributing databases: Storing database in more than
one place
 Advantages: continue to function at some
reduced level even when a component fails
 Speeds up query processing
 Reduce communication costs
 Easier & more economical to add a local
computer
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE
DISTRIBUTED DATABASE
 Disadvantages: Complex software required
 Various sites must exchange messages &
perform additional calculations to ensure
proper coordination among the sites
 NORMALISATION
 Database normalization is the process of
organizing the fields and tables of a 
relational database to minimize redundancy
 and dependency.
 Normalization usually involves dividing large
tables into smaller (and less redundant) tables
and defining relationships between them.
 The objective is to isolate data so that
additions, deletions, and modifications of a
field can be made in just one table and then
propagated through the rest of the database
using the defined relationships.
 Rules of normalisation are referred to as
normal forms:
 1NF
 2NF
 3NF
FIRST NORMAL FORM(1NF)
 A table is in 1NF if it contains no repeated
groups i.e no two fields stores same kind of
information in a single table.
SECOND NORMAL FORM
 Depends on the concepts of primary key &
functional dependency
 A database is in 2NF if it is in 1NF & every
attribute is fully functionally dependent on
the primary key.
 Thus the relation is in 1NF with no repeating
groups & all non key attributes must depend
on the whole key not just some part of it.
SECOND NORMAL FORM
 Functionally dependent means given a
primary key value of any attribute can be
retrieved.
 If the student_ID is given , the value of
student Name can be obtained
 Hence student name is functionally
dependent on student_ID
THIRD NORMAL FORM
 A table is said to be in 3NF if all the non-key
fields are independent i.e. no two non-key
fields of the table are dependent on each
other.
 Removes redundant data by removing fields
that are not wholly dependent on the
primary key.
 A table is said to be in 3NF if it is in 2NF &
every non-key field is non-transitively
dependent on the primary key.