A.

Atmospheric
Moisture
• Water is the most
valuable resources on
the earth surface ,both
for human existence
and for climatic
importance.
• Three States of Water
are solid, liquid and
gaseous.
• A change of state
requires the input of
heat energy called
latent heat.
• During these changing
processes latent heat
is either released or
absorbed.
 Significance of water vapor in Atmosphere
• Water vapor is the major constituent of atmosphere which has a very
significant role in climatic control of a particular area.
• Water vapor present in the air causes precipitation.
• Water vapor absorbs radiation and is a regulator of heat loss from the
earth
• The amount of water vapor present decides the quantity of latent heat
energy stored in the atmosphere for the growth of storms.
• Importance of hodological cycle for the sustenance of life is very vital,
and hydrological cycle is a continuous exchange of water between the
ocean, atmosphere and the continents through evaporation,
transpiration, condensation and precipitation.
 Some Vocabulary to Know
 Evaporation – Most evaporation takes place in the oceans; water vapor
can also enter the atmosphere by evaporation from lakes, streams,
ponds, and soil, thus it’s a process of transformation of water from liquid
state to gaseous stage.
 Transpiration-Evaporation taking place from vegetation.
 Evapotranspiration- loss of moisture from the terrain by direct
evaporation plus transpiration from vegetation.
 Condensation- The process of change of water from its gaseous form
(water vapor) into liquid or solid.
 Precipitation- Condensation of water vapor in the air in the form of water
droplets and ice and their falling on the ground is called precipitation.
 Sublimation – Process in which solid changes directly into a gas.
 Latent heat – Heat energy that is absorbed or released by a substance
during a phase change.
• Vapor Pressure- That part of the total atmospheric pressure attributable
to its water vapor content.
• Saturation- When evaporation is more, the increased vapor pressure in
the air above forces more and more water molecules to return to the
liquid state. Eventually a balance is reached between this condensation
and evaporation. This equilibrium state is called saturation.
Evaporation is the most fundamental process involves in
atmosphere, and mainly responsible for all other successive processes.
There are certain factors which affect the rate of evaporation like;
*temperature *Size of water area
*Movement of air *clouds
*dryness of air *Salinity of water
 Measures of water vapor:
HUMIDITY
• In general the term humidity refers to the amount of water
vapor present in the air.
• It is measured in grams per cubic meter.
• The air has a limit to hold certain amount of moisture at a
given temperature and that limit is called saturation point,
and at that point air is called saturated air.
• The capacity to absorb the moisture is directly proportional
to temperature
• Again amount of water vapor present in the air also
determine the rate of evaporation, and ultimately the
humidity
 Sources of humidity Factors affecting humidity
• Evaporation from water • Land & water distribution
bodies • Angle of incidence
• Evapotranspiration from soil • Vegetation cover
and vegetation • Prevailing wind
• altitude
 Types (Measures)of Humidity
i) Absolute humidity –Absolute humidity expressed as grams of water
vapor per cubic meter volume of air, It is the mass of water in the air.

Absolute humidity = mass of water vapor (grams)

Volume of air (cubic meters)
Gas
Weight of present vapor = 500 grams Dust
Volume of air = 1 cubic meter WV
Absolute humidity = weight
volume
=500 grams/cubic meter

• In simple terms absolute humidly is the actual amount of water vapor

per unit volume of gas at a given temperature and pressure.
ii) Specific humidity

It is the weight of water vapor per unit weight of air, or it is expressed

as the proportion of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of air.

Weight of present water vapor=500 grams

Total weight of air =1000grams
Thus specific humidity=weight Gas
weight
= 500 grams
Dust
1000 grams WV

Specific humidity is mostly preferred in the study of modern meteorology,

because as the air rises or sinks, it undergoes corresponding volume
changes of expansion or compression, thus absolute humidity changes
but specific humidity remain constant.
 Relative humidity
 It is the ratio of water vapor actually present in the air at a particular
temperature to the amount of water vapor required to saturate the same
air at the same temperature.
 It is always expressed in percentage as it is a ratio.
Suppose at a given temp 30 degree, present vapor = 500grams
Vapor containing capacity=1000grms
Relative humidity= present vapor
capacity
= 500 grams
1000 grams
x 100 = 50%

There is an inverse relation exist between temperature and relative humidity.

If temp increases, vapor containing capacity increases thus RH deceases.
500 grams
1200 grams X 100= 41.6%
Similarly if temp decreases, vapor containing capacity decreases thus RH
increases.
500 grams
800 grams X 100 = 62.5%
 How Relative Humidity Changes

• Addition or Subtraction of Moisture

Evaporation/Transpiration: If amount of water vapor increases
in the air , Relative humidity also increase

• Changes in Temperature
Relative humidity decreases as temperature increases and vice
versa.

Temp.
Increase,
Then
ability to
RH
hold water
Decreases
increases
• If relative humidity is 90% then it is day/night ?
• If relative humidity is 40% then it is day/night ?
• If relative humidity is 90% then it is summer/winter ?
• If relative humidity is 40% then it is summer/winter ?
• If relative humidity is 90% then it is continental/maritime climate ?
• If relative humidity is 40% then it is continental/maritime climate ?
Two Most important elements of weather as well as climate:
• KOPPEN: Temperature
• THORNTHWAIT: Humidity to classify world climate
Temperature Humidity
Cold Superhumid more than 75%
Cool Humid 60-75%
Warm Sub humid 50-60%
Hot Sub arid 50-40%
Arid less than 40%
 Assignment

Importance of relative humidity

• Health
• Forecasting of rain
• Agricultural operations
• Building materials
 Condensation

 Transformation of gaseous form of water (i.e. water vapor) into solid form(ice) and
liquid form(water) is called condensation.
condensation
 Water vapor liquid or solid

Depends upon the amount of relative humidity

(It means if RH is 100% then air is fully saturated and
 The temperature at which the aircondensation
becomes100% process starts)
saturated is called dew point.
 If dew point is above freezing point(32deg. F/0 deg C), condensation will occur
in liquid form, i.e. dew, fog, rainfall.
 If dew point is below freezing point, condensation occurs in solid form i.e. frost,
ice, snow, hailstorm.
Again condensation results from cooling around very small particles
called condensation nuclei.

The particles which favor the condensation process is called

hygroscopic nuclei (water seeking particles) like dust, smoke and salt
(from oceans).

Condensation process mainly depends on:

 Percentage of RH
 The degree of cooling of the air

Heat released at the time of condensation is called latent heat

of condensation.
• Normal Lapse Rate is, decrease in temperature at a rate of 6.5 degree C/ 1000mt
increase in height. (3.6 degree F/1000ft)

• Adiabatic Lapse Rate is ,When air is allowed to expand, it cools and when it is
compressed, it warms.
This change in temperature without any addition or subtraction of heat from the
moving parcel of air, is called adiabatic temperature change.

Adiabatic means occurring without any loss or gain of heat

There are of two types of adiabatic rates, depending on the moisture condition,
Dry adiabatic rate: 10 degree C/1000 Mt, before dew point
Moist adiabatic rate: 5 degree C/1000 Mt, after dew point
 Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Dry adiabatic rate Wet adiabatic rate

 It is the rate at which dry unsaturated  It is the rate at which an ascending
air cools by expansion on ascending or parcel of moist or wet (saturated with
heats by compression on descending RH 100%) air cools by expansion.
without any exchange of heat from the  Average wet adiabatic rate is about 5
surrounding environment. degree C/1000mt.
 Dry air has less moisture, with relative  This rate varies according to the
humidity less than 100%. amount of moisture content and
 DAR is 10 degree C/1000mt decrease temperature.(4deg Cto9 deg C/1000mt)
before dew point for ascending air and
increase in temp at a rate of 10 degree
C/1000mt for descending air.
Lifting
condensation
level
Adiabatic cooling occurs only when air lifted, and lifting
of air due to:

• Orographic lifting
• Frontal lifting
• Convergence
• Convection
Orographic lifting occurs when air is being obstructed
by mountain barrier
Frontal lifting
Lifting due to convergence of air
Lifting of air due to convection
 FORMS OF CONDENSATION
• Condensation is the process of transformation of water
vapor to liquid droplets or ice crystals and it is the direct
cause of precipitation
• For condensation two conditions are necessary
 cooling of air to below its dew point until it is saturated
 presence of sufficient condensation nuclei

hygroscopic nuclei: water seeking nuclei like ocean salt,

dust, smoke etc.
hydrophobic nuclei: water repelling such as oils, gasoline,
paraffin waxes etc.
 DEW

RAINFALL FROST

CONDENSATION

FOG
CLOUD
MIST
 DEW

• Water vapor present in the air condenses and is deposited in the

form of droplets on cooler surfaces of solid objects.
• They are found on the earth surface, it is only formed when dew
point is above 32 deg F.(above 0 deg C)
• Some ideal conditions for dew formation are:
• Long nights
• Clear skies
• Calm air
• High relative humidity
 FROST
• If the surface or object on which the moisture is being deposited is so cold that
its temperature is below 32 deg. F, the water vapor is frozen as it condenses and
this frozen dew is called frost or hoarfrost.
• Frost are basically formed during night time and disappear in day time.
• Ideal condition:
• The sky should be clear and air must be dry so that radiation must take place at quickest.
• Dry air must be calm
• These ideal condition is only possible during winter seasons.

Frosts are very helpful for

agriculture in in dry and sub-
humid areas
 Classification of Frost
• GROUND FROST: When the cooling is no very severe, the ground and its immediate air
will reach freezing point and thus ground frost is formed. They are not sustained for a
longer period , and disappear during day time.
• AIR FROST: The area coverage is more than ground frost, when the whole layer of air
near the ground falls below freezing point, air frost is formed.
• HOAR FROST: The deposition of tiny ice-spicules directly from water vapor on to the
surface of plants and objects on the ground are called hoar frost. these frost are formed due
to nocturnal radiation to a temperature below the dew point, which itself is below freezing
point.
• BLACK ICE OR GLAZED FROST: When light rain falls on a surface which has a
temperature below freezing point, a thin sheet or coating of smooth transparent ice forms on
road or other surface, these are called black ice or glazed frost.
• RIME: It is an accumulation of white opaque granular ice-particles formed when fog is
composed of super cooled droplets attached with telephone wires, trees, rock buttresses with
the flow of slight winds.
 GROUND
FROST

RIME

AIR FROST

HOAR FROST

BLACK FROST
• Mist is a phenomenon caused by small
fine droplets of water suspended in air.
Physically, it is an example of a
dispersion. It is most commonly form
when temperature fall all of sudden.
• where warm, moist air meets ,
condensation takes place within itself on
dust particles, and vapors move about at
relatively low altitude, thus atmosphere
become smoky.
• Mist and fog are often considered as same
but in real, mists are generally found over
the ocean or water bodies, and vapor
content is high in mist than fog.
• Mist are generally disappear in the
morning with the rise of sun.
 FOG
• Fog are often called thin clouds, where condensation takes place on dust or smoke
particles or salt over seas.
• According to Strahler and Strahler, fog is simply a cloud layer in contact with land or sea
surface or lying very close to the earth surface
• Byers defined fog as almost microscopically small water droplets suspended in the
atmosphere and reducing horizontal visibility to less than one km.
• Smog= smoke + fog
• Fogs are formed due to radiation, conduction and mixing of warm and cold air masses
near the earths surface.
 CLASSIFICATION OF FOG

• Air Mass Fogs • Frontal Fogs

1) Advective types 1) pre- frontal (warm front) fog
a) Fogs due to the transport of warm 2) Post- frontal (cold front) fog
air over a cold surface 3) Front passage fog
b) Fogs due to the transport of cold air
over a warm surface
2) Radiation types
c) Ground fog
d) High-inversion fog
3) Advection- radiation fog
4) Upslope fog
Cloud
• So, what is a cloud?
~ It is a thick mass of suspended water drops or
ice crystals.

• What do clouds tell us?

~ The presence of clouds in the sky is one type of
signal to meteorologists that there will be changes in
the weather. Predicting the weather requires the
understanding of the different types of clouds.
Cloud Formation
Sunlight causes water to evaporate into the atmosphere.
This air containing the water vapor is heated at the surface
of the earth and rises. As the air rises, it cools and the water
vapor condenses on some form of particulate matter such as
dust, ash, or smoke to form clouds. The particulate matter
are called Hygroscopic nuclei or Condensation Nuclei.
 Cooling Processes
That Help Form Clouds
Four major processes that cause cooling for clouds to form:
1. Adiabatic Cooling – temperature of an air mass decreases
as the air mass rises & expands
2. Mixing – when 1 body of moist air mixes with another body
of moist air of a different temp
3. Lifting – forced upward movement of air results in cooling
of air & cloud formation
4. Advective Cooling – temperature of an air mass decreases
as the air mass moves over a cold surface
 Adiabatic Temperature Changes

• When air is allowed to expand, it cools and

when it is compressed, it warms.

• This temperature change, produced without

adding or subtracting heat, is called adiabatic
temperature change.
 Types of Lifting of Air
Air Lifting processes create clouds & clouds
Are the only means of precipitation on Earth
Four types of lifting are recognized:

1. Convergent Lifting
2. Convectional Lifting
3. Orographic Lifting
4. Frontal Lifting
Convergent Lifting of Air
Convergent Lifting occurs
When Air masses meet &
are forced To rise vertically

This process is best seen at

The Equator where the
Trades Winds Meet & rise
to form towering Clouds
& heavy Precipitation
 Local Convectional Lifting
Anywhere the
Land is warmer
Air will rise

In this example
A plowed field
Creates warmer
Air temperatures
Than nearby
Green cropland
& Local air rises
 Orographic Lifting of Air
When air moving
Horizontally
Encounters a Moisture
Mountain it must Lost
Rise over the crest Dry
Moist Air
As it rises, it cools Air
To create clouds,
And most often
precipitation
Run off NO Run off
 Frontal Lifting of Air
Although not a mountain range, masses of moving air
Create the same effect – Unlike mountains air masses
Can provide lifting in many different locations

Fronts can lift air

Which is stable,
Creating clouds
& large amounts
Of precipitation
As rain, snow,
Sleet or hail
Identifying Clouds Types
To better communicate and understand the many cloud forms in the sky,
meteorologists identify clouds based on five basic cloud characteristics,
Luke Howard an English biologist was first provided a new perspective
on clouds.

1. The altitude at which they occur

2. Color
3. Density
4. Shape
5. Degree of cover.
One form of classification is based on appearance or form.
Using these characteristics you can identify the three basic
cloud types:

Cirrus: from Latin word hair…….having fibrous or feathery

appearance.
Cumulus: from Latin word cumulus i.e. pile…..having flat base
and rounded tops & lumpy in appearance.
Stratus : from Latin word stratum i.e. layer……lying in a level
sheet.
ground
STRATUS CLOUDS
CHARACTERISTICS --
Stratus - Sheet like
Low clouds
Layered
Covers large areas of the
sky
Blocks the sun
“Covers” the earth
 CUMULUS
CLOUDS
CHARACTERISTICS ---
• Puffy
• Vertical Growing Clouds
• Thick
• Looks like popcorn/cauliflower
• Form thunderstorms
• Cumulus – piled, heaped
CIRRUS CLOUDS
CHARACTERISTICS --
• Highest Clouds
• Wispy (thin/dry)
• Feathery (soft)
• Cirrus – curly
• Made of ice crystals
Clouds can also be classified based on their altitude

Cloud Types
High Clouds = Cirro Cirrostratus
Cirrocumulus
Middle Clouds = Alto Altostratus
Altocumulus
Low Clouds = Strato Stratus
Stratocumulus
 Cloud Type by Rain
• Finally, we can classify them based on the presence of rain
Nimbus: any cloud that rains

Cumulonimbus: taller, towering Nimbostratus: low, flat clouds that

versions of cumulus clouds. Their are often associated with steady
height can be from two to five precipitation and occur in thick,
miles. These clouds often form continuous layers and are often dark
thunderstorms. grey in color.
cirrocumulus cirrostratus
C. Precipitation
• Condensation of water vapor in the
air in the form of water droplets and
ice and their falling on the ground is
called precipitation.(either in solid
form or in liquid)
• It is an important point to note that,
after condensation the size of cloud
droplets are too small in size which
gradually increases to form larger
droplets, when the resistance of the air
fails to hold them against the force of
gravity, they fall on the earth surface
in different forms of precipitation.
• Clouds are composed of tiny water
droplets from condensation onto CCN
 HOW PRECIPITATION
FORMS
There are two processes/mechanisms of precipitation
depending upon type of cloud:
1) Collision and Coalescence Process (Warm clouds)
(totally > 0oC)
2) Ice-Crystal Process (Cool and cold clouds) (at
least partially below 0oC)
 CAUSES OF PRECIPITATION

• Coalescence – formation
of a large droplet by the
combination of smaller
droplets
• Super cooling – a
condition in which a
substance is cooled below
its freezing point,
condensation point,
without going through a
change in state.
 • Precipitation in Warm Clouds • Precipitation in Cool and Cold
• clouds with only liquid water Clouds
above 0oC • Cold cloud – a cloud entirely below
• 2 processes produce warm cloud 0oC that may contain super cooled
water, ice, or both
precipitation: • Cool cloud – a cloud with regions both
• Collision above and below 0oC
• Coalescence
• Collision – when cloud droplets
collide with each other,
• Coalescence – when colliding
cloud droplets stick together.
Coalescence efficiency is assumed
to be near 100% when all drops
stick together if they collide)
 COLLISION AND COALESCENCE PROCESS

• In a warm cloud (clouds formed in temperature above freezing),

the collisions of minute cloud droplets creates larger droplets.
• This process is called coalescence.
• Coalescence helps to break the equilibrium of the atmosphere
which keeps minute droplets suspended in the clouds.
• The droplets which combine together become large which
sometimes makes them to become too heavy for the cloud
updrafts to keep up.
• These droplets then begin to fall through the cloud as
precipitation.
• As these droplets fall through the cloud they merge with other
droplets which makes them even larger.
 COLLISION AND COALESCENCE PROCESS
CONTD…….

• Sometimes these droplets will break apart or bounce off each

other.
• It has been found that coalescence is further helped when water
droplets are of different electrical charges.
• If the air underneath the cloud is moist, than the droplet will
reach the ground as drizzle. If the cloud is extremely high above
the ground, the droplet will evaporate before reaching the
surface.
 FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
• Snowfall
• Sleet
• Hail
• Drizzle
• Rainfall
• SNOWFALL: when condensation takes place at a temperature below freezing point,
then the water vapor in the air is directly turned into solid state without passing
through the liquid state. Earlier the condensed particles are in the minute particles
and gradual coalescence form bigger particles. These bigger particles fall on the
earth in the form of snow flakes.
• SLEET: These are frozen raindrops and re-frozen melted snow water. When a layer
of air with temperature above freezing point overlies a sub-freezing layer near the
ground, precipitation takes place in the form of sleet.
• HAIL: precipitation in the form of hard rounded pellets is called hail. These are
formed due to two conditions
• When water droplets falling on the earth pass through cold air whose temp is below freezing
point , these water droplets are frozen into ice pellets.
• Sometimes rapid ascending air current lift raindrops to a great height above the freezing level,
and these water droplets freeze easily around small solid particles present in the atmosphere.
Hailstones are reveal several concentric layers of ice one over the other.
• DRIZZLE: drizzle is spray-like rainfall of small water drops, the diameter of
which varies from 0.2 to 0.5mm. These drops originate in low and thin
stratus clouds and very short-lived. Fine drizzle is often called mist in North
America.
• RAINFALL: when the humid air rises up, it cools and condensation of water
vapor takes place, then the water vapor is deposited on hygroscopic nulei and
turned into water particles, and also cloud particles. These cloud particles
come close to one another, and coalesce into bigger particles. When their size
becomes so large that their weight is more than the up thrust of air, the
particles will fall down in the form of rain. The size of raindrop is between .
5mm to 6mm. For rainfall two most important pre-requisite conditions are:
– There should be sufficient humidity in the air.
– Condensation should be caused due to rising and cooling of the moist air.
Usually a raindrop contains about 8 million cloud droplets, and the speed of rain drop is 200
times greater than the velocity of cloud droplets.
 It all begins with clouds…
• Clouds are composed of tiny water droplets
from condensation onto CCN
 Clouds -> Precipitation
• Cloud droplet fall speeds are way too low to become
precipitation

For clouds to produce precipitation, cloud

droplets must get bigger!
The Precipitation Process
 HOW PRECIPITATION
FORMS

There are two processes/mechanisms of

precipitation depending upon type of cloud:
1) Collision and Coalescence Process (Warm
clouds) (totally > 0oC)
2) Ice-Crystal Process (Cool and cold clouds)
(at least partially below 0oC)
 Causes of Precipitation
• Coalescence – formation of a
large droplet by the
combination of smaller droplets
• Super cooling – a condition in
which a substance is cooled
below its freezing point,
condensation point, or
sublimation point without
going through a change in state
 Precipitation in Warm Clouds
• Warm clouds – clouds with only liquid water
above 0oC

• 2 processes produce warm cloud precipitation:

1) Collision
2) Coalescence
 Collision in Warm Clouds
• Collision – when cloud droplets collide with each other

• Collision efficiency depends on relative size of a

collector drop and droplets below
- Low efficiency for very small drops
- Low efficiency for same-size drops
- High efficiency for drops in between these sizes
Collision in Warm Clouds
 Coalescence in Warm Clouds
• Coalescence – when colliding cloud droplets
stick together

• Coalescence efficiency is assumed to be near

100% (all drops stick together if they collide)
 COLLISION AND COALESCENCE PROCESS

• In a warm cloud (clouds formed in temperature above freezing),

the collisions of minute cloud droplets creates larger droplets.
• This process is called coalescence.
• Coalescence helps to break the equilibrium of the atmosphere
which keeps minute droplets suspended in the clouds.
• The droplets which combine together become large which
sometimes makes them to become too heavy for the cloud
updrafts to keep up.
• These droplets then begin to fall through the cloud as
precipitation.
• As these droplets fall through the cloud they merge with other
droplets which makes them even larger.
 COLLISION AND COALESCENCE PROCESS
CONTD…….

• Sometimes these droplets will break apart or bounce off each

other.
• It has been found that coalescence is further helped when water
droplets are of different electrical charges.
• If the air underneath the cloud is moist, than the droplet will
reach the ground as drizzle. If the cloud is extremely high above
the ground, the droplet will evaporate before reaching the
surface.
 CLOUD DROPLET
1000 UM

AS THE DROPLET FALLS IT COLLIDES

AS THE DROPLET GOES UP WITH OTHER
WITH THE UPDRAFT
IT GROWS LARGER THROUGH DROPLETS;THUS,GROWING LARGER
COALESCENCE

UPDRAFT
6.5 M/SEC
CLOUD DROPLET IS 100 UM

Raindrop
5000 um
Precipitation in Cool and Cold Clouds
• Cold cloud – a cloud entirely below 0oC that
may contain super cooled water, ice, or both

• Cool cloud – a cloud with regions both above

and below 0oC
 Precipitation in Cool and Cold
Clouds
• Precipitation in cool and cold clouds relies on a
mixture of supercooled water and ice

Key Concept
Saturation vapor pressureice is less than
Saturation vapor pressurewater

The Bergeron Process

The Bergeron Process
 The Bergeron Process
• For air with both supercooled water and ice:
1) Amount of water vapor is in equilibrium with water
(saturated)
2) Amount of water vapor is not in equilibrium with ice
(supersaturated)
3) Water vapor deposits onto ice, lowering the amount of water
vapor, causing evaporation of water
4) The cycle continues – ice grows and water vanishes
 Precipitation in Cool and Cold
Clouds
• Once the Bergeron Process takes place, ice becomes
big enough to fall, and 2 additional processes occur:
1) Riming – ice collides with supercooled water
which freezes on contact
2) Aggregation – ice crystals collide and stick
together
 ICE CRYSTAL PROCESS
• The next precipitation process is a long one
to discuss; therefore, I am going to break it
down into the following four categories:
(1) Equilibrium
(2) Deposition
(3) Graupel
(4) Bergeron Process
 ICE CRYSTAL PROCESS
(Equilibrium)
• In a normal mixed cloud, clouds with both water droplets and ice
crystals, many super cooled droplets will surround each ice
crystal.
• Since the difference in vapor pressure causes water vapor
molecules to move from the liquid droplets to the ice crystals,
the removal of vapor molecules reduces the vapor pressure
above the droplet.
• This makes the droplet go out of equilibrium with its
surroundings and the droplet will evaporate to replace the
supply of water vapor above it.
 ICE CRYSTAL PROCESS
(Deposition)
• The process that makes the water droplet go out of equilibrium
with the surrounding atmosphere allows the ice crystal to grow
by deposition.
• Deposition is part of the water cycle and it is the change of water
vapor to ice.
• The deposition process gives the ice crystals extra weight which
allows them to become too heavy for the updrafts to keep afloat.
Now we have ice crystals falling from the sky.
 ICE CRYSTAL PROCESS
(Graupel)
• When the ice crystals fall from the sky they collide with super
cooled droplets.
• This causes the droplets to freeze on contact with the ice
crystals.
• This process is called accretion or riming.
• The riming matter we now have is called graupel. As the graupel
falls, it tends to splinter up into tiny ice particles as it collides
with other cloud droplets.
• These droplets then turn into more graupel and the process
continues.
 ICE CRYSTAL PROCESS
(Bergeron Process)
• In colder clouds, ice crystals may collide with other crystals and
fracture into smaller ice particles.
• As these ice crystals fall, they may collide or stick together with one
another.
• When they collide they form a collection of snowflakes called a
snowflake.
• If the snowflake melts before reaching the ground, it will continue
it’s descent to the surface as a raindrop.
• Therefore it seems that all precipitation that falls to the ground
starts off as a snowflake. This theory is known as the Bergeron
Process.
 TYPES/FORMS OF
PRECIPITATION
– Rain – liquid precipitation
– Snow – common solid precipitation
– Sleet – forms when rain falls through a
layer of freezing air near the ground
– Hail – solid precipitation in the form of
lumps of ice
 RAIN AND DRIZZLE
• Defined as any falling drop of liquid water that has a diameter greater than 500
um (0.5 mm)
• Rain can either be showery or continuous
• Showery rain occurs in cumuliform form clouds
• Continuous rain occurs in stratiform clouds
• The atmospheric significance of showery rain is that it shows that the
atmosphere is unstable in the lower atmosphere
• The atmospheric significance of continuous rain is that it shows that the lower
layers of the atmosphere are stable
• Drizzle is defined as any falling drop of liquid water that is less than 500 um
(0.5mm)
• Drizzle only occurs in stratiform clouds;thus, drizzle lets meteorologists know
that the atmosphere is stable
 Difference between the two

RAIN: 0.5 MM OR GREATER

DRIZZLE: LESS THAN 0.5MM

Measuring Precipitation
• Meteorologists use a variety of instruments
– Rain gauge
– Doppler radar
 Measuring Precipitation

• Raingage – A cylindrical container that

collects rainfall and measures its depth
 Precipitation Measurements
Standard Instruments:

Simple rain gauge, standard rain gauge, tipping bucket gauge,

weighing gauge
Precipitation Measurement by
Radar
 Measuring Precipitation
• Errors in measuring precipitation occur due to:
1) Turbulent flow near top of raingage
2) Water splashes out of raingage
3) Water is retained on wall of raingage
4) Evaporation of water in raingage
5) Snow obstructs top of gage
6) Spatial variability of precipitation
Global Precipitation Distribution
 Cloud Seeding
• Cloud seeding – injecting foreign materials into
clouds to initiate precipitation by the Bergeron
process

1) Dry ice is used to cool clouds to very

cold temperatures, causing ice crystals
to form
2) Silver iodide (similar structure to ice) is
used as ice nucleii
Cloud Seeding

1946 Vincent J. Schafer discovered that dry ice dropped into

supercooled clouds spurred the growth of ice crystals which
either induced precipitation or dispersed fog or clouds.
 Cloud Seeding
• During drought conditions, a method called cloud
seeding is used to produce precipitation.
• Tiny crystals of silver iodide and dry ice are
sprinkled into clouds from airplanes.
• Water vapor can condense on the particles of silver
iodide and dry ice cools the water vapor from the
air.
• As a result, clouds form.
Cloud Seeding

In order for cloud seeding to trigger precipitation, conditions must

be just right.

• Clouds must be present; seeding cannot create clouds.

• A portion of the clouds must contain supercooled water.

One method assumes that the clouds are lacking in freezing nuclei
and adding them will stimulate precipitation by the Bergeron
process. One must be careful not to overseed as this will produce
too many, too small ice crystals.