ENVIRONEMNTAL PLANNING &

PRACTICE
Course Code 3671
Level: Postgraduate
UNIT 3
CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
RABEEA ZAFAR
LECTURER ( ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN)
DEPARTMENT OF HOME & HEALTH SCIENCES
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
 CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS IN GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Major Environmental Problems are:

1. Green House Effect/ Global Warming
2. Ozone Layer Depletion
3. Acid Rain
4. Desertification
 What is Greenhouse Effect??
• Trapping of the sun's warmth in a planet's lower
atmosphere
• The greenhouse effect is the process by which
radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the
planet's surface to a temperature above what it would
be in the absence of its atmosphere. If a planet's
atmosphere contains radiatively active gases
(i.e., greenhouse gases) the atmosphere radiates
energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is
directed towards the surface, warming it.
 Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
• Increase in the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases in the Earth's atmosphere enhances the greenhouse
effect. 
• With emissions being produced daily, a large imbalance is
being created which is enhancing the greenhouse effect and
making it stronger.
• As there are naturally occurring greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere that help keep the Earth warm, additional amounts
of these gases leads to more heat being trapped on the planet.
• This extra heat is causing global warming as well as affecting
the Earth's weather patterns.
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
 Causes
• Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide
(N2O) and fluorinated gas levels have been increasing
because of humans activities. Examples of these activities
and their impact:
• The burning of fossil fuels (such as natural gas, coal and
oil) have added large quantities of CO2 into the planet's
atmosphere. Fossil fuels are used to produce electricity, for
transportation and in industrial production.
• Farming practices, such as intensive chemical soil
fertilization, have led to the increase in CH4 and N2O
levels in the air.
 Causes
• Industry also produces and emits fluorinated
gases such as hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs) per
fluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulphur hexafluoride
(SF6). These are very strong greenhouse gases
with many being more than a hundred times
more powerful than CO2.
• Deforestation increases the amount of CO 2 in
the air, as there are less trees to absorb it
through photosynthesis.
 Major Greenhouse Gases
• By their percentage contribution to the greenhouse effect on
Earth the four major gases are:
• Water Vapor, 36–70%
• Carbon Dioxide, 9–26%
• Methane, 4–9%
• Ozone, 3–7%
• It is not physically realistic to assign a specific percentage to
each gas because the absorption and emission bands of the
gases overlap (hence the ranges given above). The major
non-gas contributor to the Earth's greenhouse effect, clouds,
also absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus have an
effect on radiative properties of the atmosphere.
 Effects
• With an enhanced greenhouse effect, the Earth is unable to
release enough heat to space which leads to global warming.
• Global weather patterns absorb some of this overall increase
in temperature and adjust for this accumulation in energy.
These two effects are now creating climate changes around
the world.
• Scientist have recorded a 0.75°C increase in the planet's
overall temperature during the course of the last 100
years. The enhanced greenhouse effect leads to other effects
on our climate and has already caused:
• Greater strength of extreme weather events like: heatwaves,
tropical cyclones, floods, and other major storms.
• Increasing number and size of forest fires.
 Effects
• Rising sea levels (predicted to be as high as two feet by
the end of the next century).
• Melting of glaciers and polar ice.
• Increasing acidity in the ocean, resulting in bleaching
of coral reefs and damage to oceanic wildlife.
 Global Warming
• A gradual increase in the overall temperature of the
earth's atmosphere generally attributed to the
greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon
dioxide, CFCs, and other pollutants.
• Global Warming is the increase of Earth's average
surface temperature due to effect of greenhouse gases,
such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil
fuels or from deforestation, which trap heat that would
otherwise escape from Earth. This is a type
of greenhouse effect.
 Facts
• According to NASA:
• Carbon dioxide levels are at 399.2 ppm as of November 2014
• The global temperature has risen 14 F (7.8 C) since 1880
• The global Arctic ice minimum (the extent of sea ice in warm
months) is decreasing by 13.3 percent each decade
• Land ice is decreasing by 258 billion tons (234 million
kilotons) each year
• Due to melting ice, the sea level has risen by 0.12 inches
(3.17 millimeters) per year
 Causes
• Global warming is primarily a problem of too much carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere—which acts as a blanket,
trapping heat and warming the planet.
• As we burn fossil fuels like coal, oil and natural gas for
energy or cut down and burn forests to create pastures and
plantations, carbon accumulates and overloads our
atmosphere.
• Certain waste management and agricultural practices
aggravate the problem by releasing other potent global
warming gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide. The pie
chart for a breakdown of heat-trapping global warming
emissions by economic sector.
Causes
 Effects
• The planet is warming, from North Pole to South Pole,
and everywhere in between. Globally, the mercury is
already up more than 1 degree Fahrenheit (0.8 degree
Celsius), and even more in sensitive polar regions. And
the effects of rising temperatures aren’t waiting for some
far-flung future. They’re happening right now. Signs are
appearing all over, and some of them are surprising. The
heat is not only melting glaciers and sea ice, it’s also
shifting precipitation patterns and setting animals on the
move.
• Some impacts from increasing temperatures are already
happening.
 Effects
• Spruce bark beetles have boomed in Alaska thanks to
20 years of warm summers. The insects have chewed
up 4 million acres of spruce trees.
• Ice is melting worldwide, especially at the Earth’s
poles. This includes mountain glaciers, ice sheets
covering West Antarctica and Greenland, and Arctic sea
ice.
• Researcher Bill Fraser has tracked the decline of the
Adélie penguins on Antarctica, where their numbers
have fallen from 32,000 breeding pairs to 11,000 in 30
years.
 Effects
• Sea level rise became faster over the last century.
• Some butterflies, foxes, and alpine plants have moved
farther north or to higher, cooler areas.
• Precipitation (rain and snowfall) has increased across
the globe, on average.
• Sea levels are expected to rise between 7 and 23 inches
(18 and 59 centimeters) by the end of the century, and
continued melting at the poles could add between 4 and
8 inches (10 to 20 centimeters).
• Hurricanes and other storms are likely to become
stronger.
 Effects
• Species that depend on one another may become
out of sync. For example, plants could bloom
earlier than their pollinating insects become active.
• Floods and droughts will become more common.
Rainfall in Ethiopia, where droughts are already
common, could decline by 10 percent over the
next 50 years.
• Less fresh water will be available, leaving
thousands of people who rely on it for drinking
water and electricity without a source of either.
 Effects
• Some diseases will spread, such as malaria carried by
mosquitoes.

• Ecosystems will change—some species will move farther

north or become more successful; others won’t be able to
move and could become extinct.
• Wildlife research scientist Martyn Obbard has found that
since the mid-1980s, with less ice on which to live and fish
for food, polar bears have gotten considerably skinnier. 
• Polar bear biologist Ian Stirling has found a similar pattern
in Hudson Bay.  He fears that if sea ice disappears, the
polar bears will as well.
 Ozone Layer Depletion
• Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related
phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady
decline of about 4% in the total volume of ozone in
Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much
larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone
around Earth's polar regions.
Ozone Depletion
Ozone Depletion
 Causes
When CFCs and HCFCs reach the stratosphere, the
ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes them to break
apart and release chlorine atoms which react with ozone,
starting chemical cycles of ozone destruction
that deplete the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break
apart more than 100,000 ozone molecules.
 Mechanism
Scientists had theorized since the 1970s about the
chemistry that could lead to ozone depletion. But in May
1985 scientists with the British Antarctic Survey shocked
the world when they announced the discovery of a huge
hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica.
The Main Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
– The most widely used ODS, accounting for over
80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion.
– Used as coolants in refrigerators, freezers and air
conditioners in buildings and cars manufactured
before 1995.
 Mechanism
– Found in industrial solvents, dry-cleaning agents and
hospital sterilants.
– Also used in foam products — such as soft-foam
padding (e.g. cushions and mattresses) and rigid
foam (e.g. home insulation).
Halons
– Used in some fire extinguishers, in cases where
materials and equipment would be destroyed by
water or other fire extinguisher chemicals. Halons
cause greater damage to the ozone layer than do
CFCs from automobile air conditioners.
 Mechanism
Methyl Chloroform
Used mainly in industry — for vapour degreasing,
some aerosols, cold cleaning, adhesives and chemical
processing.
Carbon Tetrachloride
Used in solvents and some fire extinguishers.
Hydrofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
HCFCs have become major, “transitional” substitutes
for CFCs. They are much less harmful to stratospheric
ozone than CFCs are. But HCFCs they still cause
some ozone destruction and are potent greenhouse
gases
 Mechanism
• Number of atomic and molecular species designated as
CATALYSTS that react efficiently with ozone by removing
an oxygen molecule from it.
X + O3 XO + O2
XO + O X + O2
O3 + O 2O2
• Atomic Chlorine are efficient Catalyst for Ozone
destruction
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
ClO + O Cl + O2
O3 + O 2O2
 Effects
• Stratospheric ozone filters out most of the
sun's potentially harmful shortwave ultraviolet
(UV) radiation.
• If this ozone becomes depleted, then more UV
rays will reach the earth.
• Exposure to higher amounts of UV radiation
could have serious impacts on human beings,
animals and plants.
 Effects
• Harm to human health:
– More skin cancers, sunburns and premature aging of the skin.
– More cataracts, blindness and other eye diseases: UV radiation
can damage several parts of the eye, including the lens,
cornea, retina and conjunctiva.
– Cataracts (a clouding of the lens) are the major cause of
blindness in the world. A sustained 10% thinning of the ozone
layer is expected to result in almost two million new cases of
cataracts per year, globally (Environment Canada, 1993).
– Weakening of the human immune system
(immunosuppression). Early findings suggest that too much
UV radiation can suppress the human immune system, which
may play a role in the development of skin cancer.
 Effects
Adverse impacts on agriculture, forestry and
natural ecosystems:
– Several of the world's major crop species are
particularly vulnerable to increased UV, resulting
in reduced growth, photosynthesis and flowering.
– These species include wheat, rice, barley, oats,
corn, soybeans, peas, tomatoes, cucumbers,
cauliflower, broccoli and carrots.
 Effects
Damage to marine life:
• In particular, plankton (tiny organisms in the surface
layer of oceans) are threatened by increased UV
radiation. Plankton are the first vital step in aquatic food
chains.
• Decreases in plankton could disrupt the fresh and
saltwater food chains, and lead to a species shift.
• Loss of biodiversity in our oceans, rivers and lakes could
reduce fish yields for commercial and sport fisheries.
 Effects
Animals:
• In domestic animals, UV overexposure may cause eye and
skin cancers.
• Species of marine animals in their developmental stage (e.g.
young fish, shrimp larvae and crab larvae) have been
threatened in recent years by the increased UV radiation
under the Antarctic ozone hole. 
Materials:
• Wood, plastic, rubber, fabrics and many construction
materials are degraded by UV radiation.
• The economic impact of replacing and/or protecting
materials could be significant.
 Photochemical Smog
• Coinage of the term "smog" is generally attributed to 
Dr. Henry Antoine Des Voeux in his 1905 paper, "Fog and
Smoke" for a meeting of the Public Health Congress.
• The July 26, 1905 edition of the London newspaper Daily
Graphic quoted Des Voeux, "He said it required no science
to see that there was something produced in great cities
which was not found in the country, and that was smoky fog,
or what was known as 'smog.‘
• The following day the newspaper stated that "Dr. Des Voeux
did a public service in coining a new word for the London
fog."Smog" also appears in a January 19, 1893, Los Angeles
Times article and is attributed to "a witty English writer."
 Photchemical Smog
• Photochemical smog is a condition that
develops when primary pollutants (oxides of
nitrogen and volatile organic compounds
created from fossil fuel combustion) interact
under the influence of sunlight to produce a
mixture of hundreds of different and hazardous
chemicals known as secondary pollutants.
 Photochemical Smog
• The industrial revolution has been the central cause
for the increase in pollutants in the atmosphere over
the last three centuries.
• Before 1950, the majority of this pollution was
created from the burning of coal for energy
generation, space heating, cooking, and
transportation.
• Under the right conditions, the smoke and sulfur
dioxide produced from the burning of coal can
combine with fog to create industrial smog.
 Photochemical Smog
• In high concentrations, industrial smog can be extremely
toxic to humans and other living organisms. London is
world famous for its episodes of industrial smog. The most
famous London smog event occurred in December, 1952
when five days of calm foggy weather created a toxic
atmosphere that claimed about 4000 human lives.
• Today, the use of other fossil fuels, nuclear power, and
hydroelectricity instead of coal has greatly reduced the
occurrence of industrial smog. However, the burning of
fossil fuels like gasoline can create another atmospheric
pollution problem known as photochemical smog.
 Photochemical Smog
• The table in next slide describes the major
toxic constituents of photochemical smog and
their effects on the environment.
• Development of photochemical smog is
typically associated with specific climatic
conditions and centers of high population
density.
Toxic Chemical Sources Environmental Effects Additional Notes

- decreased visibility due to yellowish color of

- all combustion processes account for only 5 % of
- combustion of oil, coal, gas in both automobiles and NO2- NO2 contributes to heart and lung
Nitrogen Oxides  NO2 in the atmosphere, most is formed from
(NO and NO2) industry- bacterial action in soil- forest fires- volcanic problems- NO2 can suppress plantgrowth- reactions involving NO-concentrations likely to rise in
action- lightning decreased resistance to infection- may encourage
the future
the spread of cancer

- the effects of VOCs are dependent on the type of

- evaporation of solvents- evaporation of fuels- - eye irritation- respiratory irritation- some are
chemical- samples show over 600 different VOCs in
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) incomplete combustion of fossil fuels- naturally carcinogenic- decreased visibility due to blue-
atmosphere- concentrations likely to continue to rise
occurring compounds like terpenes from trees brown haze in future

- bronchial constriction- coughing, wheezing- - concentrations of 0.1 parts per million can reduce
- formed from photolysis of NO2- sometimes results respiratory irritation- eye irritation- decreased photosynthesis by 50 %- people with asthma and
Ozone (O3) from stratospheric ozone intrusions crop yields- retards plant growth- damages respiratory problems are influenced the most- can
plastics- breaks down rubber- harsh odor only be formed during daylight hours

Peroxyacetyl Nitrates (PAN) - formed by the reaction of NO2 with VOCs (can be - eye irritation- high toxicity to plants- respiratory - was not detected until recognized in smog- higher
formed naturally in some environments) irritation- damaging to proteins toxicity to plants than ozone
 Formation of Smog
Certain conditions are required for the formation of
photochemical smog. These conditions include: 

1. A source
• Nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds.
• High concentrations of these two substances are
associated with industrialization and transportation.
• Industrialization and transportation create these
pollutants through fossil fuel combustion. 
2. The time of day is a very important factor in the amount of
photochemical smog present.

• Early morning traffic increases the emissions of both nitrogen

oxides and VOCs as people drive to work.
• Later in the morning, traffic dies down and the nitrogen oxides and
volatile organic compounds begin to react forming nitrogen
dioxide, increasing its concentration.
• As the sunlight becomes more intense later in the day, nitrogen
dioxide is broken down and its by-products form increasing
concentrations of ozone.
• At the same time, some of the nitrogen dioxide can react with the
volatile organic compounds to produce toxic chemicals such as
PAN.
• As the sun goes down, the production of ozone is halted. The ozone
that remains in the atmosphere is then consumed by several
different reactions.
3. Several meteorological factors can influence the formation of
photochemical smog. These conditions include: 

• Precipitation can alleviate photochemical smog as the pollutants

are washed out of the atmosphere with the rainfall.
• Winds can blow photochemical smog away replacing it with fresh
air. However, problems may arise in distant areas that receive the
pollution.
• Temperature inversions can enhance the severity of a
photochemical smog episode. Normally, during the day the air
near the surface is heated and as it warms it rises, carrying the
pollutants with it to higher elevations. However, if a temperature
inversion develops pollutants can be trapped near the Earth's
surface. Temperature inversions cause the reduction of
atmospheric mixing and therefore reduce the vertical dispersion of
pollutants. Inversions can last from a few days to several weeks.
Temperature Inversion
temperature inversion,
condition in which the
temperature of the
atmosphere increases with
altitude in contrast to the
normal decrease with
altitude. When temperature
inversion occurs, cold air
underlies warmer air at
higher altitudes.
4. Topography is another important factor influencing
how severe a smog event can become.
• Communities situated in valleys are more
susceptible to photochemical smog because hills and
mountains surrounding them tend to reduce the air
flow, allowing for pollutant concentrations to rise.
• In addition, valleys are sensitive to photochemical
smog because relatively strong temperature
inversions can frequently develop in these areas.
 Mechanism
• To begin the chemical process of photochemical smog
development the following conditions must occur:
• Sunlight.
• The production of oxides of nitrogen (NOx).
• The production of volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
• Temperatures greater than 18 degrees Celsius.
 Mechanism
• If the above criteria are met, several reactions will
occur producing the toxic chemical constituents of
photochemical smog.
• ozone (O3) and peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN). 
• Note the symbol R represents a hydrocarbon (a
molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen and other
atoms) which is primarily created from volatile
organic compounds. 
 Mechanism
• Nitrogen dioxide can be formed by one of the
following reactions:
• Notice that the nitrogen oxide (NO) acts to remove
ozone (O3) from the atmosphere and this mechanism
occurs naturally in an unpolluted atmosphere. 

O3 + NO »»» NO2 + O2 

NO + RO2 »»» NO2 + other products

 Mechanism
• Sunlight can break down nitrogen dioxide (NO2) back
into nitrogen oxide (NO).
• NO2 + sunlight »»» NO + O
• The atomic oxygen (O) formed in the above reaction then
reacts with one of the abundant oxygen molecules (which
makes up 20.94 % of the atmosphere) producing ozone (O3).
• O + O2 »»» O3
• Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) can also react with radicals
produced from volatile organic compounds in a series of
reactions to form toxic products such as peroxyacetyl
nitrates (PAN).
• NO2 + R »»» products such as PAN
 Mechanism
• It should be noted that ozone can be produced naturally
in an unpolluted atmosphere.
• However, it is consumed by nitrogen oxide as
illustrated in the first reaction.
• The introduction of volatile organic
compounds results in an alternative pathway for
the nitrogen oxide, still forming nitrogen dioxide but
not consuming the ozone, and therefore ozone
concentrations can be elevated to toxic levels.
 Effects
• Health Effects
Because of the effects of ozone on your lungs, smog
exposure may lead to several different types of short-
term health problems:
• Coughing and throat/chest irritation: High levels of
ozone can irritate your respiratory system. Generally,
these types of mild symptoms only last for a few hours
after you've been exposed to smog. However, ozone
can continue to harm your lungs even after symptoms
disappear.
• Worsening asthma symptoms: If you suffer from
asthma, being exposed to high levels of ozone from
smog can trigger asthma attacks.
• Difficulty breathing and lung damage: Because of
ozone's effect on lung function, smog can make it feel
difficult to breathe deeply, especially during exercise.
Research has shown that ozone exposure can also
damage the lining of your lungs.
• Some groups are especially at risk. Children, seniors,
and people with asthma need to be especially careful on
smoggy days.
• It causes painful irritation of the respiratory system,
reduced lung function and difficulty breathing; high
levels of smog also trigger asthma attacks because the
smog causes increased sensitivity to allergens, which
are triggers for asthma.
 Effects
Effects on Environment
• Photochemical smog has devastating effects on the environment.
• The collection of chemicals found in photochemical smog causes
problems for plants and animal life.
• Some plants such as tobacco, tomato and spinach are highly
responsive to ozone.
• Ozone causes necrotic (dead) patterns on the upper surfaces of
the leaves of trees.
• Ground-level ozone also can interfere with the growth and
productivity of trees.
• The effects of smog on animals are also similar to its effect on
humans; it decreases lung capacity and lung elasticity.
 Solution
• A possible solution to the problem of photochemical smog
is to enforce stricter emission laws all over the globe. 
• Many countries have varying laws on the legal limits of
NOx, Carbon Dioxide, and Sulfur Dioxide.  For example,
the United States has a lower legal limit for CO2 than
Mexico, which is just south of the U.S. 
• If you can go from one country to another, and notice the
differences between the two levels of photochemical smog.
• If the world were to enforce the same legal smog levels, we
wouldn’t have to worry about concentrations of smog in
some places more than others.
• Another possible solution is to come up with a
cleaner burning fuel for automobiles. 
• Some cars already are being experimented running
hydrogen, electricity, solar power, and even water. 
• The problem is that these automobiles are not in
mass production, therefore, leaving the world to
rely on gasoline/diesel as the primary source for
power. 
• If the world were to accept the hydrogen car or
electric car more openly and develop them for
mass production, we would have lower levels of
the photochemical pollutants altogether.
 A case of Okanagan Valley
• Photochemical smog can be a significant pollution problem in the
Okanagan Valley. The Okanagan meets all the requirements necessary for
the production of photochemical smog, especially during the summer
months. During this time period there is an abundance of sunlight,
temperatures are very warm, and temperature inversions are common and
can last for many days. The Okanagan Valley also has some very significant
sources of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds, including:
• 1. High emissions of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic compounds
primarily from burning fossil fuels  in various forms of transportation.
• 2. The release of large amounts of nitrogen oxides and volatile organic
compounds into the atmosphere from forestry and agriculture. Forestry
contributes to the creation of photochemical smog creation in two ways: the
burning of slash from logging; and, the burning of woodchip wastes in
wood product processing plants. Agriculture produces these chemicals
through the burning of pruning's and other organic wastes.
 Acid Rain
• "Acid rain" is a broad term referring to a mixture of wet
and dry deposition (deposited material) from the
atmosphere containing higher than normal amounts of
nitric and sulfuric acids.
• The precursors, or chemical forerunners, of acid rain
formation result from both natural sources, such as
volcanoes and decaying vegetation, and man-made sources,
primarily emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx) resulting from fossil fuel combustion.
• In the United States, roughly 2/3 of all SO2 and 1/4 of all
NOx come from electric power generation that relies on
burning fossil fuels, like coal. 
 Formation of Acid Rain
• Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the
atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other
chemicals to form various acidic compounds.
• The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and
nitric acid.
• When sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are
released from power plants and other sources,
prevailing winds blow these compounds across
borders, sometimes over hundreds of miles.
 Acid Rain
Wet Deposition
• Wet Deposition refers to acidic rain, fog, and snow.
• If the acid chemicals in the air are blown into areas
where the weather is wet, the acids can fall to the ground
in the form of rain, snow, fog, or mist.
• As this acidic water flows over and through the ground, it
affects a variety of plants and animals.
• The strength of the effects depends on several factors,
including how acidic the water is; the chemistry and
buffering capacity of the soils involved; and the types of
fish, trees, and other living things that rely on the water.
• Dry Deposition
• In areas where the weather is dry, the acid chemicals
may become incorporated into dust or smoke and fall
to the ground through dry deposition, sticking to the
ground, buildings, homes, cars, and trees.
• Dry deposited gases and particles can be washed from
these surfaces by rainstorms, leading to increased
runoff. This runoff water makes the resulting mixture
more acidic. About half of the acidity in the
atmosphere falls back to earth through dry deposition.
Formation
 pH of Rain
• Pure water has a pH of 7.0 (neutral); however, natural,
unpolluted rainwater actually has a pH of about 5.6
(acidic).
• The acidity of rainwater comes from the natural
presence of three substances (CO2, NO, and SO2)
found in the troposphere (the lowest layer of the
atmosphere).
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) is present in the greatest
concentration and therefore contributes the most to the
natural acidity of rainwater.
 pH of Rain
• Carbon dioxide reacts with water to form
carbonic acid (Equation 1). Carbonic acid then
dissociates to give the hydrogen ion (H +) and
the hydrogen carbonate ion (HCO3-) (Equation
2). The ability of H2CO3to deliver H+ is what
classifies this molecule as an acid, thus
lowering the pH of a solution.
1

2
 pH of Rain Water
• Nitric oxide (NO), which also contributes to the
natural acidity of rainwater, is formed during
lightning storms by the reaction of nitrogen and
oxygen, two common atmospheric gases (Equation 3).
• In air, NO is oxidized to nitrogen dioxide (NO 2)
(Equation 4), which in turn reacts with water to give
nitric acid (HNO3) (Equation 5).
• This acid dissociates in water to yield hydrogen ions
and nitrate ions (NO3-) in a reaction analagous to the
dissociation of carbonic acid shown in Equation 2,
again lowering the pH of the solution.
pH of Rain Water

5
 Acidity of Rain
• About one-fourth of the acidity of rain is accounted for by
nitric acid (HNO3).
• In addition to the natural processes that form small
amounts of nitric acid in rainwater, high-temperature air
combustion, such as occurs in car engines and power
plants, produces large amounts of NO gas.
• This gas then forms nitric acid. Thus, a process that occurs
naturally at levels tolerable by the environment can harm
the environment when human activity causes the process
(e.g., formation of nitric acid) to occur to a much greater
extent.
 Acidity of rain
• What about the other 75% of the acidity of rain? Most is
accounted for by the presence of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) in
rainwater.
• Although sulfuric acid may be produced naturally in small
quantities from biological decay and volcanic activity ,it is
produced almost entirely by human activity, especially the
combustion of sulfur-containing fossil fuels in power plants.
• When these fossil fuels are burned, the sulfur contained in
them reacts with oxygen from the air to form sulfur dioxide
(SO2).
• Combustion of fossil fuels accounts for approximately 80%
of the total atmospheric SO2 in the United States.
 Causes & Effects
There are several important impacts of acid deposition on both natural
and man-made environments.
• Aquatic settings are the most clearly impacted by acid deposition
though because acidic precipitation falls directly into them.
• Both dry and wet deposition also runs off of forests, fields, and roads
and flows into lakes, rivers, and streams.
• As this acidic liquid flows into larger bodies of water, it is diluted but
over time, acids can accrue and lower the overall pH of the body.
• Acid deposition also causes clay soils to release aluminum and
magnesium further lowering the pH in some areas.
• If the pH of a lake drops below 4.8, its plants and animals risk death
and it is estimated that around 50,000 lakes in the United States and
Canada have a pH below normal (about 5.3 for water).
• Several hundred of these have a pH too low to support any aquatic
life.
 Causes & Effects
• Acid deposition can significantly impact forests.
• As acid rain falls on trees, it can make them lose their leaves,
damage their bark, and stunt their growth.
• By damaging these parts of the tree, it makes them
vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects.
• Acid falling on a forest’s soil is also harmful because it
disrupts soil nutrients, kills microorganisms in the soil, and
can sometimes cause a calcium deficiency.
• Trees at high altitudes are also susceptible to problems
induced by acidic cloud cover as the moisture in the clouds
blankets them.
 Causes & Effects
Damage to forests by acid rain is seen all over the world, but the
most advanced cases are in Eastern Europe. It’s estimated that in
Germany and Poland, half of the forests are damaged, while 30% in
Switzerland have been affected.

Finally, acid deposition also has an impact on architecture and art

because of its ability to corrode certain materials.
• As acid lands on buildings (especially those constructed with
limestone) it reacts with minerals in the stones sometimes causing
it to disintegrate and wash away.
• Acid deposition can also corrode modern buildings, cars, railroad
tracks, airplanes, steel bridges, and pipes above and below
ground.
 Effects on Fish
• Acid rain causes effects that harm or kill individual fish, reduce
fish population numbers, completely eliminate fish species from
a waterbody, and decrease biodiversity.
• As acid rain flows through soils in a watershed, aluminum is
released from soils into the lakes and streams located in that
watershed.
• So, as pH in a lake or stream decreases, aluminum levels
increase. Both low pH and increased aluminum levels are
directly toxic to fish.
• In addition, low pH and increased aluminum levels cause
chronic stress that may not kill individual fish, but leads to
lower body weight and smaller size and makes fish less able to
compete for food and habitat.
 Effects on Fish
• Some types of plants and animals are able to
tolerate acidic waters.
• Others, however, are acid-sensitive and will be
lost as the pH declines.
• Generally, the young of most species are more
sensitive to environmental conditions than adults.
• At pH 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch.
• At lower pH levels, some adult fish die.
• Some acid lakes have no fish.
 Effects on Ecosystem
• How Does Acid Rain Affect Ecosystems?
• Together, biological organisms and the environment in which
they live are called an ecosystem.
• The plants and animals living within an ecosystem are highly
interdependent. For example, frogs may tolerate relatively high
levels of acidity, but if they eat insects like the mayfly, they may
be affected because part of their food supply may disappear.
• Because of the connections between the many fish, plants, and
other organisms living in an aquatic ecosystem, changes in pH
or aluminum levels affect biodiversity as well.
• Thus, as lakes and streams become more acidic, the numbers
and types of fish and other aquatic plants and animals that live
in these waters decrease.
 Desertification
• Desertification is a process of land-degradation by which
a region becomes progressively drier and drier —
eventually becoming desert.
• Or, to put it another way — desertification is the process
by which previously biologically productive land is
transformed into wasteland.
• The most widely accepted definition is probably the one
that’s now printed in the Princeton University Dictionary
— which defines it : “The process of fertile land
transforming into desert typically as a result of
deforestation, drought, or improper/inappropriate
agriculture”
 Facts about Desertification
• 2.6 billion people depend directly on agriculture, but 52% of
the land used for agriculture is moderately or severely
affected by soil degradation.
• Land degradation affects 1.5 billion people globally.
• Arable land loss estimated at 30 to 35 times the historical
rate.
• Due to drought and desertification each year 12 million
hectares are lost (23 hectares/minute!), where 20 million tons
of grain could have been grown.
• 74% of the poor (42% of the very and 32% of the moderately
poor) are directly affected by land degradation globally.
• Source: UNCCD Brochure 
 Desertification
• Desertification key facts:
• Land degradation is often a cause and a consequence
of rural poverty. Desertification can cause poverty,
and poverty can cause further desertification.
• The livelihoods of nearly one billion people in some
100 countries are threatened by desertification.
• Desertification contributes to internal displacement
and international migration of people.
• About 25 per cent of the Earth’s land, or 3.6 billion
hectares, is desertified.
Desertification
 Causes
There are a number of different causes/mechanisms behind the
process, such as:
•  deflation (the loss of stabilizing vegetation, and of top soil);
erosion; and soil-salinity-rise (via irrigation mostly).
• Some of these are, at least partially “natural” — but as with
nearly everything in life, just because something happens
“on its own” doesn’t mean that you can’t help it along.
• Most especially in recent years (but throughout much of
recorded human history as well), much of the desertification
around the world has been driven by human activity.
Agriculture, animal husbandry, and groundwater
pumping/depletion
 Causes
• Environmental/land degradation has
throughout history been one of the largest
drivers of human migration and population
shifts.
• When the land/soil/environment degrades,
when the prey/domesticated animals die off,
when agricultural yields drop, when water
becomes scarce — people die. Or move.
 Causes
• Some of these drivers are simply the result of
natural environmental variation and shifts that are
the result of larger natural patterns,
• But many are also simply the direct result of human
actions.
• The environmental catastrophes/collapses inevitably
result in big changes in the activities and behavior
of the humans dependent upon these things —
almost invariably resulting in mass migration, and
the movement of whole populations.
 Causes
• Over Grazing And Animal Husbandry
• The most immediate cause of human-caused desertification is the
destruction and/or removal of the land’s stabilizing vegetation — a
process known as deflation.
• This is caused, and acts in concert with, a number of other factors —
including drought, overgrazing, deforestation, common agricultural
practices, and changes in the climate.
• With the removal of a region’s vegetation, the soil degrades and
erodes very rapidly — leaving an environment that is far less suited to
supporting common forms of life.
• These, now barren, unprotected dry-surfaces result in the washing and
blowing away of the top — and most fertile — layers of soil. This
leaves only the less-biologically-active lower-soil-layers, which are
often then subsequently baked dry and hard in the sun.
 Causes and Effects
Famine And Poverty

• Famine and poverty/starvation invariably seem to

follow desertification, but what may be a less obvious
truth than that is that famine and poverty are often
drivers of desertification them-self — often being
locked together in a downward spiral.
• Poverty and famine encourages poor land-use practices,
overgrazing, and short term food production at the cost
of long-term production. The predictable effect of these
practices is declining food production and an increase
in the level of poverty.
 Causes & Effects
• Deforestation
• Deforestation is one of the main drivers of desertification, and
the processes that set desertification in motion.
• More than half of the planet’s forests have been destroyed in the
last 10,000 or so years — with most of that loss coming in only
the last 50 years, along with an exponential increase in the
human population.
• This enormous deforestation has been the cause of an enormous
number of species extinctions, the desertification of large tracts
of lands, climatic changes, topsoil erosion, large-scale flooding
events, famine, disease epidemics/pandemics, and what you
might as well call “insect plagues”, amongst other things.
 Causes & Effects
Extinction
• Species extinction is one of the most prominent effects of
desertification. Most species are closely tied to their ecological
niches, and to the wider environment that they live in. With the
loss of their environment, most simply disappear — or, at the
least, see a huge drop in their genetic diversity.
• The emergence and diversification of new species rarely occurs
in rapidly changing, degrading environments (despite popular
perceptions) — new species almost always only emerge in
healthy ecosystems, and/or environments/ecosystems that have
seen some of their niches emptied.
 Causes & Effects
• The long-period of time that typically follows large extinction
events when no new species emerge is referred to as a “dead
zone”.
• In recent times, human behavior has been one of the main
drivers of species extinction — primarily through the actions,
and knock-on effects, of: deforestation, agricultural
development, over-hunting, environmental degradation,
desertification, and introduced diseases/species.
• It’s been estimated that at the current rate of “human disruption
of the biosphere” that one-half of all of the multicellular life
forms currently in existence will be extinct by the year 2100.
 Causes & Effects
• Water becomes scarce or is threatened
• Land degradation in the drylands can have direct consequences on
the water cycle. 
If there is low rainfall then drought follows: groundwater reserves do
not refill, water sources become depleted, wells run dry, plants and
animals die and humans have to migrate to more hospitable regions.
• On the other hand, during periods of high rainfall, the ensuing floods
kill people and animals, notably in regions where vegetation cover is
reduced or totally destroyed. 
• The torrential rain flow causes a substantial loss of soil, which is then
flushed out by the rains, and when the land becomes dry again, a hard
crust forms on the surface that renders it impermeable, reducing
water infiltration.
 Causes & Effects
• Biodiversity decline
• Land degradation due to drought, salinity or over-
exploitation has immediate consequences on the capacity of
vegetation to maintain or reconstruct itself.
• Animal species, dependent on this vegetation, have to
migrate to other areas to find sufficient resources or they risk
disappearing altogether.
• The importance of this loss derives from the fact that animal
and plant species from the drylands are particularly well
adapted to this extreme environment. They act as indicators
of the environmental condition of these areas and their
disappearance is a sign of significant habitat degradation.
 Solution
• What can be done?
• Reforestation and tree regeneration
• Water management — saving, reuse of treated water, rainwater
harvesting, desalination, or direct use of seawater for salt-
loving plants
• Fixating the soil through the use of sand fences, shelter belts,
woodlots and windbreaks
• Enrichment and hyper-fertilizing of soil through planting
• Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration (FMNR), enabling
native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub
shoots. The residue from pruned tress can be used to provide
mulching for fields thus increasing soil water retention and
reducing evaporation.
 NUTRIENT CYCLE
• There are 92 elements known to occur naturally on
Earth, however fewer than 20 elements occur in
the tissues of living things.
• Only 6 elements make up 99.2% of human tissues.
• oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen make up
the vast majority of living tissue.
• These four elements are recycled between living
organisms and the soil, water and atmosphere of
the Earth.
• These elements are first taken up by plants
– some oxygen is released to the atmosphere as a product of
photosynthesis, but the rest is converted into food, and
passed through the food web.
– as they pass through plants, consumers, and finally
decomposers, and then returned to the environment in a
continuous recycling of materials.
– If recycling of these materials did not occur, life could not
exist.
• Some of these elements (carbon, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen) are
found in gaseous forms and their cycles involve the
atmosphere. As a result they have a global nature.
• elements may have a short term cycle such as when carbon is
transferred from animals to plants in the form of carbon
dioxide
• and a long term cycle such as the transfer of carbon from a
fossil fuel to a plant following combustion.
• The elements are cycled between the living organisms
and the environment in a combination of biological and
geological processes that drives chemical recycling.
• Biological processes include:
– ·         respiration,
– ·         decomposition,
– ·         excretion,
– ·         photosynthesis,
– ·         and assimilation.
• Geological processes involve
» fossilization
» Erosion
» combustion of fossil fuels (peat, oil, coal),
» weathering
» formation of sedimentary rock.
 Nutrient Cycles
• Inorganic nutrients
(Carbon, Oxygen,
Nitrogen) are recycled
continually through
ecosystems.
• Plants and animals
build structures from
nutrients and inorganic
material.
Energy Flow vs. Nutrient Cycling
• Energy flows through ecosystems: it enters the
ecosystem via sunlight, is stored temporarily in
complex molecules, and ultimately leaves in the form
of heat.
• Nutrients cycle within ecosystems: they are
atoms that stay within the ecosystem and are found at
different times in different parts of the system.
 Nutrient Cycles
• Nutrients are recycled in a living system.
• The key nutrients are carbon, hydrogen
Oxygen, Nitrogen and Phosphorus. These
constitute 95% of all living matter
Water never leaves the Earth. It is constantly being
cycled through the atmosphere, ocean, and land. This
process, known as the water cycle, is driven by
energy from the sun. The water cycle is crucial to the
existence of life on our planet.
 Condensation
The movement through plants The Clouds form

Transpiration

Precipitation
The rain falls Evaporation

The vapor rises

 During part of the water cycle, the sun heats up liquid
water and changes it to a gas by the process of
evaporation. Water that evaporates from Earth’s oceans,
lakes, rivers, and moist soil rises up into the atmosphere.
The Water Cycle
The process of evaporation from plants is called
transpiration. (In other words, it’s like plants
sweating.)
As water (in the form of gas) rises higher in the atmosphere,
it starts to cool and become a liquid again. This process is
called condensation. When a large amount of water vapor
condenses, it results in the formation of clouds.
When the water in the clouds gets too heavy, the water
falls back to the earth. This is called precipitation.
When rain falls on the land, some of the water is absorbed into the
ground forming pockets of water called groundwater. Most
groundwater eventually returns to the ocean. Other precipitation
runs directly into streams or rivers. Water that collects in rivers,
streams, and oceans is called runoff.
Carbon Cycle
• Plants take carbon dioxide and water from
their environment.
• They use the energy they capture from the sun to
carry on a process known as Photosynthesis
which converts the atoms in the carbon dioxide
and water into sugar (glucose) and oxygen.
• 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2
 
• The oxygen, released as a byproduct of photosynthesis,
generally passes into the atmosphere.
• The sugar (known as glucose) serves a
• food for all consumers in the ecosystem.
• The consumers carry on a metabolic process known as
cellular respiration. Where oxygen is taken in from the
atmosphere and used to break down the sugar resulting in a
release of energy and the molecular products, carbon
dioxide and water.
• Respiration chemical equation
• C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
• Notice: photosynthesis and respiration are
opposite reactions.
• What is made in photosynthesis is used in
respiration and what is made in respiration is
used in photosynthesis…
Carbon is the center to life..
• All living things contain carbon.
• Carbon is the link that allow plants to
transform sunlight into chemical energy.
• The sugar (glucose) produced during
photosynthesis forms the basic substance that
is transferred along food chains.
• Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is very small,
0.03%
• However, without the carbon cycle we would
quickly run out of carbon dioxide, plants could
not trap sunlight, and life on earth would cease.
• Sources Of Carbon:
• Organic substances always contain carbon
and hydrogen, and often contain oxygen and
nitrogen.
• Important chemicals that make up your body
such as proteins, sugar and fats are considered
organic.
• Sources:
• Inorganic matter doesn’t contain a
combination of carbon and hydrogen.
• For example: carbon dioxide (CO2), water
(H2O) and ammonia (NH3) are inorganic.
 Inorganic carbon storage
• 1. Atmosphere: a small amount in the carbon dioxide
in the air we breathe and is available for
photosynthesis.
• 2.Ocean: a large amount is found in the oceans. This
is available to algae and other water plants for
phototypesets.
• 3. Earths crust: the largest storage of inorganic
carbon is in the sedimentary rocks, such as limestone,
that have formed from the remains of living things.
 Organic Carbon Storage
• In the bodies of living organisms.
• When living things die, their bodies decompose
and the carbon is returned to the cycle in
inorganic form.
• Because there is limited oxygen in bogs,
decomposition takes thousands of years.
• Carbon may remain locked away for many year in
organic form.
• Carbon locked away in dead plants is know as peat.
• When peat is covered in sediment for a long time it will
become coal, a carbon containing fossil fuel.
• Other fossil flues such as
oil and gas contain organic
carbon that has been trapped
in the earth’s crust for
millions of years.
Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen is essential to living things
for the production of proteins and
DNA which are used to pass on the
hereditary information from parent
to offspring.
• Even though the atmosphere is
about 78% nitrogen gas, plants and
animals are unable to use nitrogen
gas directly as a source of nitrogen
to make organic nitrogen
compounds.
• The nitrogen cycle can occur in both terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems.
 Plants change Nitrogen into….
Path 1: Nitrogen Fixation by Lightning
• The electrical energy of lighting causes nitrogen gas (N2)
to react with oxygen (O2) in the atmosphere to produce
nitrate ions (NO3-) which reach the soil dissolved in
precipitation.
Path 2: Nitrogen Fixation by Bacteria
• Bacteria in the soil can change nitrogen gas (N2) into
ammonia (NH3) which dissolves in water to form
ammonium ions (NH4+)
 Nitrification
• It is a bacterial process in which ammonium
(NH4) ions are converted into nitrate ions.
– They are first changed into nitrites (NO2-) by
bacteria, and then converted to Nitrates (NO3-) by a
different group of bacteria.
 Assimilation: The making of proteins for
consumer use
• Assimilation is the process by which plants
use the nitrate ions (NO3-) to make amino
acids, proteins, and DNA.
• Only plants and bacteria can carry out the process, all
other living organisms receive their nitrogen
compounds from the food they eat.
 Ammonification
• Consumers generally produce wastes throughout their
lives.
• When consumers die their body contain nitrogen
compounds such as protein and DNA.
• Ammonification is when bacteria and some fungi break
down these nitrogen compounds to make ammonia.
• The ammonia immediately dissolves in soil water to
form ammonium ions (NH4+ )
 Denitrification
• During this step, nitrites are changes to
Nitrogen gas (N2) which returns to the
atmosphere.
• It is basically the reverse of nitrogen fixation
and nitrification.
• Done by bacteria!
Phosphorus cycle
 Phosphorus cycle
• Phosphate is important for cell membranes, it helps release energy
that makes up DNA and calcium in bones.
• Phosphate in rocks and fossils will weather (break down into tiny
pieces).
• The inorganic phosphate dissolves in soil and rivers.
• Plants absorb phosphates and consumers receive phosphate
from eating plants.
– Organic phosphate returns to the soil when decomposition
occurs.
• Bones, teeth and waste, as well as river runoffs go to the
ocean.
– Here the Phosphate is store until there is a geological
uplift.
 Definition of Oxygen
• Oxygen – a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas
• Denser than air
• Poor conductor of heat and electricity
 History of Oxygen
• Early evolution of Earth, oxygen released from
H2O vapor by UV radiation and accumulated in
the atmosphere as the hydrogen escaped into the
earth's atmosphere
• Photosynthesis became a source of oxygen
• Oxygen released as organic carbon and gets
buried in sediments.
 Oxygen Cycle
The Earth’s atmosphere consists
of:
• 21% Oxygen
The Earth’s lithosphere consists
of:
• 99.5% Oxygen
The Earth’s hydrosphere consists
of:
• 46.60% Oxygen
Biological Importance of Oxygen
• Humans need it to breathe
• Needed for decomposition of organic
waste
• Water can dissolve oxygen and it is this
dissolved oxygen that supports aquatic
life.
 Ecological Importance of Oxygen
• Without oxygen at the bottom of the water body, anaerobic
bacteria (those that live without oxygen) produce acids.
• These acids not only increase acidity, but also cause a massive
release of phosphorus and nitrogen, two major fertilizers, from the
organic sediment and into the water column.
• These same anaerobic bacteria put toxic gases in the water
including hydrogen sulfide (that rotten egg smell), ammonia,
carbon dioxide and methane. These gases are all toxic to fish,
beneficial bacteria and insects.
• Lack of bottom oxygen is the cause of odors produced by
anaerobic bacteria.
Ecological Importance of Oxygen Cont.

• Lack of fish enables disease-hosting mosquitoes to

thrive, as mosquitoes are natural food for fish.

• Without oxygen at the bottom at all times,

beneficial bacteria and insects cannot biodegrade
the organic sediment.
• Large accumulations of organic sediment follow.
 Oxygen Cycle
• Plant release oxygen into the atmosphere as a by-
product of photosynthesis.
• Animals take in oxygen through
the process of respiration.
• Animals then break down
Sugars and food.
oxygen
 Oxygen Cycle
• Carbon dioxide is released by animals and used in
plants in photosynthesis.
• Oxygen is balanced between the atmosphere and
the ocean.
 Thank you

Questions/Discussion