Carbohydrate

Macromolecules
Carbohydrates
Introduction
 Molecules are important to biology,

they are the building blocks of life.
Many molecules are very small
Othersare very large and are known as
macromolecules
Biological Macromolecules
 Large complex assemblies

• Structural or informational function
• Many are polymers, repeating units
bonded together
 Fourclasses: carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids
 Many macromolecules consist of polymers
 A polymer is a large molecule built up from smaller
building block molecules
 Monomers (a.k.a., subunits) are the building block
molecules
 The inherent differences between human siblings
reflect variations in polymers, particularly DNA and
proteins
 Molecular differences between unrelated individuals
are more extensive, and between species are even
greater
 The molecular logic of life is simple but elegant:
Small molecules common to all organisms are
ordered into unique macromolecules .
 For each class (of compound) the
macromolecules have emergent properties not
found in their individual monomers.
Building Macromolecules
 Dehydration synthesis reactions (condensation)
• Molecule of water is removed as subunits are linked
• Requires input of energy to assemble
• Catalysis carried out by enzymes
 Hydrolysis reactions
• Molecule of water added as subunits are broken apart
• Reactions disassemble molecules to subunits, energy
released
Dehydration (Polymer) Synthesis
Energy +
 Condensation reaction, dehydration reaction

Hydrolysis–Polymer Breakdown
 Enzymes are employed in biological systems to effect most
hydrolysis reactions
+ Energy
Polymers, Monomers, and Lipids
Category of
Polymer Monomer
Biomolecules
polysaccharide carbohydrates monosaccharides
polypeptides proteins amino acids
polynucleic acids RNA & DNA nucleotides
 Lipid monomers are not easily defined like other monomers

 Lipids are less-readily described using the same polymeric
terms
Simple Carbohydrates
A. A variety of forms
1. Some function in energy storage, others are
structural
2. Some are small and simple, others are long polymers
B. Sugars are simple carbohydrates
1. Contain C,H,O in 1:2:1 ratio
a. C-H bonds release energy when broken
b. Well suited for storage function
2. Monosaccharides
a. Contain as few as three carbon atoms
b. Empirical formula C6H12O6 or (CH2O)6
c. May exist in straight chains that form rings in
solution in water
d. Primary six carbon sugar is glucose
e. Sugar isomers
i. Have same empirical formula
ii. Atoms are arranged differently
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
The two simplest sugars
2 2
| |
1—C—3 3—C—1
| |
4 4
Monosaccharides
Ring Forms (Glucose)
These are all Glucose

Glucose Anomers
Monosaccharides
Keep in mind
Difference in the position of OH
Difference in bonds formed
Difference in the structure of molecule formed
Difference in function of the molecule

3. Disaccharides
a. Double sugars include sucrose
b. Composed of two monosaccharides joined by a covalent
bond
c. Important in transport of sugars
4. Polysaccharides
a. Macromolecules composed of monosaccharide subunits
b. Starch is used by plants to store energy
c. Cellulose is a plant structural molecule, special enzymes
needed to break links
Transport and Storage
Carbohydrate
A. Transport Disaccharides
1. Protects sugar from being metabolized during
transport
2. Are made of two monosaccharides linked together
3. Enzymes that break this bond are only present in
glucose-using tissue
4. Types of transport disaccharides
a. Sucrose = glucose + fructose
b. Lactose = glucose + galactose
Disaccharide Synthesis
Energy +
Carbohydrate
B. Storage Polysaccharides
1. Metabolic energy stored as disaccharide maltose
2. Maltose units are liked to form insoluble forms
3. Insoluble polymers are called polysaccharides
4. Starches are polysaccharides made from glucose
5. Amylose is the simplest form in plants
a. Carbon 1 of glucose bonds to carbon 4 of the next glucose
b. Chains of maltose that coil in water
Glucose is the most
common
monosaccharide
A sugar polymer
Carbohydrate
6. Pectins are branched polysaccrides in plants
a. Called amylopectin when based on amylose
b. Branches formed by cross-links, sort chain length
between branches
c. Results in meshwork of linked glucose units
7. Glycogen is branched form in animals
a. Insoluble polysacchride with long chain length
b. Great number of branches
Starches
more branching
Starch/Glycogen
Structural Carbohydrate
A. Cellulose
1. Orientation of glucose subunits
a. In starch the units are all alpha form of glucose
b. In cellulose the units are beta form of glucose
2. Structural polysaccharide that is a component of plant cell
walls
a. Chemically similar to amylose
b. Cant be degraded by enzyme that breaks amylose beta-
glucose bonds
c. Indigestible by most organisms, human dietary fibers
d. Degraded by certain bacteria and protests
Cellulose
Most organisms
cannot digest
(hydrolyze) cellulose
Organisms that
can digest
cellulose include
the
microorganisms
living the
gastrointestinal
tract of many
organisms typified
especially by
cows and termites
and many fungi
(i.e., the things
that “eat” the
wood of fallen
trees)
Structural Carbohydrate
B. Chitin
1. Structural modification of cellulose produces
chitin
a. Present in insects and fungi crossed linked by
proteins
b. N-acetyl group replaces a hydroxyl group in
each glucose unit
2. Few organisms can digest this compound
Chitin
Chitin is another example of a

structural carbohydrate.
Chitin is found in the
exoskeletons of insects,
spiders, and crustaceans.
Chitin is also found in the cell
walls of fungi. Chitin is
leathery in pure form but is
hardened in most uses via the
deposition of calcium
carbonate.

Carbohydrate

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Macromolecules

 Molecules are important to biology,

 Large complex assemblies

 Condensation reaction, dehydration reaction

polysaccharide carbohydrates monosaccharides

polypeptides proteins amino acids

polynucleic acids RNA & DNA nucleotides

 Lipid monomers are not easily defined like other monomers

These are all Glucose

Difference in the position of OH

Difference in bonds formed

Difference in the structure of molecule formed

Difference in function of the molecule

Chitin is another example of a

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