Glycolysis
Glycolysis
Glycolysis
Sources
Glycogen Metabolism
(30) (1)
1 6 Similar to glycogen in
α-1,4 & α-1,6 glycosidic
animal cells, but less
Starch: the nutritional linkages
extensive branching
1 4 1 4
store of glucose in Branched 2 in starch.
2 Forms of Starch (nutritional reservoir in plants)
plants.
glu 1 glu
α-1,4 glycosidic linkages 1 4
A major source of Unbranched 3 2
dietary glucose.
glu fru
gal glu
Monosaccharides
gal
glu
fru
•The α-limit dextrins contain approx. 8 glucose units with one or more
α-1,6 branch points. They will be further digested to maltose, maltotriose,
and glucose on the luminal surface of the epithelial cells.
Initial Digestion of Carbohydrates
b) Brush Border of the Mucosal Epithelium
Products: short chain fatty acids, lactate, hydrogen gas, methane, CO2
Na-dependent
“Active
Transport”
“Facilitated
Diffusion” “Facilitated
Na-independent Diffusion”
Na-independent
Stage 2
Stage 2 +4 ATP
+4 ATP
2 NAD+
2 NAD+ 11
Lactate (2)
Glycolysis: Stage 1
6 6
Important Additional Points
) Reaction is irreversible.
6 membered 5 membered
pyranose ring furanose ring
6
5 6
1
4 1 2
5
3 2 4 3
1 Aldehyde 1
2 2 Ketone
3 3
4
4
5 5
6 6
6 1
5 2
4 3
1
1
2
2 4
3 3 5
4 6
5
6
1 4
2 5
3 6
Additional Points:
4 ADP 4ATP.
Stage 1
-2 ATP Stage 1
-2 ATP
Stage 2
+4 ATP
2 NAD+
2 NAD+
2 NAD+
11
Lactate (2)
6th Reaction: Oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to
1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
Aldehyde
1 group
2
3
NAD+-
dependent
1
2
3 Note: The consequences of this reaction in
combination with the 6th reaction are:
1 1
2 2
3 3
9th Reaction: A dehydration reaction is which water is reversibly
removed from 2-phosphoglycerate to from phosphoenolpyruvate.
Catalyzed by enolase.
1 1
2
2
3 3
10th Reaction: Transfer of a phosphoryl group from PEP to ADP
catalyzed by pyruvate kinase.
Stage 2
+4 ATP
2 NAD+
11
Lactate (2)
There are 5 isozymic forms of lactate dehydrogenase.
H form (heart) and M form (muscle). Designated H4, H3M1, H2M2, etc.
hexokinase
phosphofructokinase
pyruvate kinase
Entry of Other Monosaccharides into Glycolysis
D-Fructose: present in fruits; also can be generated by hydrolysis
of
sucrose (yield fructose + glucose).
Note: In the liver hexokinase has a 20x higher affinity for glucose
compared to fructose. Since there is a lot of glucose present in this
organ, fructose is not principally metabolized by hexokinase, but
rather by the following pathway:
(2)
(1)
Hexokinase
Mannose + ATP Mannose 6-phosphate
Phosphomannose isomerase
Mannose 6-phosphate Fructose 6-phosphate
D-Galactose: Derived via hydrolysis of
the disaccharide lactose.
It is converted to glucose 1-phosphate
as follows: 1
phosphoglucomutase
Glucose 1-phosphate Glucose 6-phosphate
•Causes a strong osmotic effect and cell swelling due to water retention.
No sorbitol
dehydrogenase.
Dietary Disaccharides are Hydrolyzed to Monosaccharides
Inhibited by citrate.
Causes phosphorylation of
the enzyme which then
6 1 activates the phosphatase
function.
Fructose bisphosphatase 2
•The activities of PFK2 and FBPase2 reside on the same polypeptide
chain.
Causes phosphorylation of
the enzyme which then
activates the phosphatase
function and inhibits the
kinase.
Fructose bisphosphatase 2
Bottom Line: liver does not consume glucose when it is more urgently needed
by brain and muscle.
Alcoholic Fermentation
The sequence of reactions from glucose to pyruvate is similar in all
organisms.