Computer Networks:

Architecture & Concepts

Habib Youssef, Ph.D.

[email protected]
Department of Computer Engineering
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals
Dhahran, Saudi Arabia

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 1

 Computer Network?
 An interconnected collection of
autonomous computers and computer
resources

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 2

 Simple Data Communication Model

001101

Analog/Digital
Digital

Transport System Transceiver

Transceiver

Data Network
Digital
Public Telephone Network

001101

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 3

 Communication Protocols
 To provide error-free and convenient
information transfers, the network
communication is regulated by a set of rules
and conventions called network protocols.

 Protocols define connectors, cables, signals,

data formats, error control techniques, and
algorithms for message preparation,
analysis and transfer.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 4

 Protocol Data Units (PDU)
 Protocol entities exchange PDUs
» Each PDU must contain two major parts:
– Header:
 Identifies how the following parts are to be
handled and routed.
– Message:
 This is the message body itself.
 This is where the protocol is determined to be
character oriented or bit oriented.

Header Message Trailer

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 5

 OSI Reference Model of ISO
 Architecture/structure that defines
communication tasks and which would:
» Serve as a reference model for international standards
» would facilitate efficient internetworking among
systems from different technologies, manufacturers,
administrations, nationalities, and enterprises.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 6

 Reference Model

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 7

 Most Important Standards
Organizations
 ITU-T: International Telecommunication Union (a United
Nations specialized agency, was created on March 1,
1993)
 ISO: International Organization for Standardization (an
international voluntary, nontreaty organization, founded
in 1946)
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force (responsible for
publishing RFCs (Requests For Comments))
 IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
(ATM Forum: This organization is not a standard organization. After ITU defined the
ATM concept in Nov 1990, ATM Forum was initiated in October 1991 to accelerate the
deployment of ATM products and services. ATM Forum develops implementation
agreements and publishes them as “specifications” on its web site: www.atmforum.com)
April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 8
ISO OSI Reference Architecture
 The architecture is layered to reduce
complexity.
» Each layer offers certain services to the layer
immediately above it.
» Each layer shields the higher layer from the
details of implementation of how the services
are offered.
» Layer "n" on one station carries on a conversation
with layer "n" on another network station.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 9

 Layer Functions
7 Application ftp, telnet, email, www, etc.
6 Presentation Data representation
5 Session Negotiation and connection
4 Transport End-to-end delivery
3 Network Addresses and best path (routing)
2 Data Link Access to media (transfer of frames)
1 Physical Binary transmission and cabling

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 10

 Layer Functions
Application Application
Presentation Presentation
Session segments
Session
Transport Transport
packets
Network Network
Data Link frames Data Link
Physical bits Physical

Host A Host B

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 11

 Data Encapsulation
Salams Salams
Data
7. application
6. presentation
5. session
4. transport

Router Router

Packets Frames Data

Router
Router
Bits

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 12

 Data Encapsulation Example

data
Data
segment data
header Segment
network segment data
header header Packet
Frame Network Segment Data Frame
header header header trailer
Frame

01111111010101101000100100010110101 Router
Bits

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 13

 Summary
 Internetworking evolved to support current and
future applications
 The OSI reference model organizes network
functions into seven layers
 Data flows from upper-level user applications to
lower-level bits transmitted over network media
 Peer-to-peer functions use encapsulation and de-
encapsulation at layer interfaces
 Most network manager tasks configure the lower
three layers

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 14

 Application,
Presentation,
and Session Layers

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 15

 Application Layer

Computer Network Applications

Applications
 Word Processing  Electronic mail
 Presentation Graphics  File Transfer
 Spreadsheet  Remote Access
 Database  Client/Server Process
 Design/Manufacturing  Information Location
 Project Planning  Network Management
 Others  Others
April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 16
 Application Layer (cont.)

Network Applications Internetwork Applications

(For enterprise (Extend beyond the enterprise)
communication)  Electronic Data Interchange
 Electronic mail  World Wide Web
 File Transfer  E-mail Gateways
 Remote Access  Special-Interest Bulletin Boards
 Client/Server Process  Financial Transaction Services
 Information Location  Internet Navigation Utilities
 Network Management  Conferencing (Video, Voice, Data)
 Others

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 17

 Presentation Layer
 Text
 Data
» ASCII
» EBCDIC
» Encrypted
 Sound
 Video
» MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)
» MPEG (Motion Picture Experts Group)
» QuickTime

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 18

 Presentation Layer
 Graphics
 Visual Images
» PICT(format to transfer QuickDraw graphics
between Macintosh or PowerPC programs)
» TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)
» JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)
» GIF
 Provides code formatting and conversion for
applications

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 19

 Session Layer

 Coordinates applications as they interact on

different hosts

Service Request

Service Reply

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 20

 Session Layer (contd.)
 Network File System (NFS)
– Allows transparent access to remote network resources
 Structured Query Language (SQL)
 Remote-Procedure Call (RPC)
– RPC procedures are built on clients and executed on servers
 X Window System
– Allows intelligent terminals to communicate with remote UNIX
machines
 AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP)
– Establishes and maintains sessions between an AppleTalk client
and server
 DNA Session Control Protocol (SCP)
April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 21
 Transport
Layer

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 22

 Transport Layer Overview
 Segments upper-layer applications
 Establishes an end-to-end connection
 Sends segments from one end host to
another
 Ensures end-to-end data reliability

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 23

 Segment Upper-Layer
Applications
Application Electronic File Terminal
Presentation mail transfer session
Session

Transport Application Data Application Data

port port

 Transport segments share traffic stream

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 24

 Establishes Connection

sender receiver
synchronize

Negotiate connection

synchronize

Acknowledge

Connection established

Data transfer (send segments)

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 25
 Establishes Connection

transmit
sender receiver

Buffer full
not ready
process
segments
ready Buffer OK

Resume Transmission

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 26

 Reliability with Windowing
 In the most basic form of reliable
connection-oriented transfer, data segments
must be delivered to the recipient in the
same sequence that they were transmitted.
 Windowing is a method to control the amount
of information transferred end-to-end.
Some protocols measure information in
terms of number of packets

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 27

 Reliability with Windowing

Send 1 Window size 1 Receive 1

sender ACK 2 receiver

Send 2 Receive 2
ACK 3

Send 1 Window size 3 Receive 1

Send 2 Receive 2
sender receiver
Send 3 Receive 3
ACK 4
Send 4

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 28

 PAR Technique
 Reliable delivery guarantees that a stream of data
sent from one machine will be delivered through a
functioning data link to another machine without
duplication or data loss. Positive acknowledgement
with retransmission is one technique that
guarantees reliable delivery of data streams.
 The sender keeps the record of each segment it
sends and waits for an acknowledgement.
 The sender also starts a timer when it sends a
segment, and it retransmits a segment it the timer
expires before an acknowledgement arrives.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 29

 PAR Technique (contd.)

sender receiver

1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6

send 1
send 2
send 3
Ack 4
send 4
send 5 X
send 6
Ack 5
send 5
Ack 7
April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 30
 Transport to Network Layer

End-to-end segments

Router

Router
Router

Routed packets

Router
Router

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 31

 Summary
 Presentation layer formats and converts network application
data to represent text, graphics, images, video, and audio.
 Session-layer functions coordinate communication
interactions between applications.
 Reliable transport-layer functions include
» Multiplexing
» Connection synchronization
» Flow control
» Error recovery
» Reliability through windowing

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 32

 Physical and
Data Link Layers

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 33

 Physical and Data-Link
Standards
 The data link layer provides data transport across a
physical link. To do so, the data link layer handles physical
addressing, network topology, line discipline, error
notification, orderly delivery of frames , and optional
flow control.
 The physical layer specifies the electrical, mechanical,
procedural, and functional requirements for activating,
maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between
end systems.
 These requirements and characteristics are codified into
standards.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 34

 LAN Data-Link Sublayers

Network LLC
Logical Link Control
Data Link MAC
Media Access Control
Physical

MAC Frame 802.2 LLC Packet or datagram

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 35

 LAN Data-Link Sublayers
 LLC refers upward to higher-layer software
functions.
 MAC refers downward to lower-layer hardware
functions.
 LAN protocols occupy the bottom two layers of
OSI reference model: the physical layer and
data link layer.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 36

 LAN Data-Link Sublayers
 The IEEE 802 committee subdivided the data
link layer into two sublayers:
» The logical link control (LLC) sublayer
» The media access control (MAC) sublayer
 The LLC sublayer provides for environments
that need connectionless or connection-oriented
services and the data link layer.
 The MAC sublayer provides access to the LAN
medium in an orderly manner.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 37

 LLC Sublayer Functions
 Enable upper layers to gain independence over
LAN media access.
 Allow service access points (SAPs) from
interface sublayers to upper-layer functions.
 Provide optional connection, flow control, and
sequencing services.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 38

 Client-Server Model

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 39

 Client Server Model

 Client-Server paradigm is the primary

pattern of interactions among
cooperating applications.

 This model constitutes the foundation

on which distributed algorithms are
built.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 40

 What is the Client-Server Paradigm?

 The paradigm divides communicating

applications into 2 broad categories,
depending on whether the application
waits for communication or initiates it.
» An application that initiates a
communication is called a client.
» End users usually invoke a client software
when they use a network service.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 41

 Client Server Model (cont.)

 Server: Any program that offers a

service reachable over the network
» If a machine’s primary purpose is to support a
particular server program, the term server is
usually applied to both, the machine and the
server program
 Client: An executing program becomes a
client when it sends a request to a server
and waits for a response

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 42

 Client Server Model (cont.)

 A server is any program that waits for

incoming communication requests from a
client.
» Each time a client application needs to contact a
server, it sends a request and awaits a response.
» The server receives a client’s request, performs
the necessary computation, and returns the
result to the client.
» When the response arrives at the client, the
client continues processing.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 43

 Client Server Model (cont.)

Machine Running Machine Running

Client Application Server Application
Client Request Server
Program Program

Reply

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 44

 Client Server Model (cont.)

 A Misconception:
» Technically, a server is a program and not
a piece of hardware.
» However, computer users frequently
(mis)apply the term to the computer
responsible for running a particular
server program.
– For example, Web Server, is usually a
computer running the http server program.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 45

 Summary
 Internetworking evolved to support current and
future applications.
 The OSI reference model organizes network
functions into seven layers.
 Data flows from upper-level user applications to
lower-level bits transmitted over network media.
 Peer-to-peer functions use encapsulation and de-
encapsulation at layer interfaces.
 Client-Server paradigm constitutes the foundation on
which distributed algorithms are built.

April 1999 Computer Networks: Architecture & Concepts/Habib Youssef 46