Chapter 17

Late Adulthood:
Physical and Cognitive
Development
Development Across
the Lifespan
 Physical Development in Late Adulthood

 There are more than 60, 000 people in the United

States who are 100 or more years of age!
 By the year 2020, there will be over 200,000
 The mean life expectancy of people in Western
countries continues to rise
 Old age used to be equated with loss: loss of brain
cells, loss of intellectual capabilities, loss of energy,
loss of sex drive.
 This view is changing!
 GERONTOLOGISTS, specialists who
study aging, now see late adulthood as a
period of considerable diversity in which
people change--growth in some areas,
decline in others.
 Even the definition of “old” age is
changing:
 Functional ages are often considered
in addition to chronological ages…
Functional Age Categories
 Young old
– Healthy & active
 Old old
– Some health problems & difficulties with
daily activities
 Oldest old
– Frail & in need of care
~ Chronological age can sometimes predict
which group a person is likely to fall into,
but it is not a sure thing!
 Aging: Myth & Reality
 Because people are living longer, late
adulthood is increasing in length.
 Late adulthood is considered to begin at
about 60, and ends at death.
-- In 1900, only 6 % of the population was
age 60 or older.
-- By 1990, more than 17 % are 60 or older.
-- The number of people over age 85 is
projected to increase from 4 to 18 million
by 2050! (see next slide)
 The Flourishing Elderly

Think about what factors are contributing

to the rise in the population of those over
65.
 The Demographics of Late Adulthood

 Projections into the year 2050 estimate

that almost 25 % of the population will be
over 65.
 The fastest growing segment of the
population is what is termed the oldest
old, people who are 85 or older. This
group's size has nearly doubled in the
last 20 years.
 This trend is occurring in every
developed country in the world.
The Elderly Population Worldwide
Ageism:
Confronting the Stereotypes of Late
Adulthood
 AGEISM, prejudice and discrimination directed at
older people, is manifested in several ways.
 Negative attitudes about older people, especially
about competence and attractiveness.
 Job discrimination
 Identical behavior by an older person and a
younger person is interpreted differently.
 People talk baby talk to persons in
nursing homes.
 Most negative views are based on
misinformation about older people (take
the myths of aging quiz in your text)
 Important to remember that the
outcomes of aging vary widely from one
person to the next! The autumn &
winter of life can bring as much positive
change & growth as in earlier life
periods.
 Physical Transitions in Older People:
Outward Signs of Aging
 Although the physical capabilities of elderly people are not
the same as they were in earlier stages of life, many older
people remain remarkably agile and physically fit in later
life.
 One of the most obvious outward signs of aging is the hair.
– gray or white
– thinner
– The face and other parts of the body become wrinkled
as the skin loses elasticity and collagen, the protein that
forms the basic fibers of body tissue
~ People may shrink as much as 4 inches.
 cartilage in backbone becomes thinner
 women are most susceptible if they have
OSTEOPOROSIS, a condition in which the bones
become brittle, fragile, and thin, often brought about
by a lack of calcium in the diet.
 25 % of women over 60 have osteoporosis.
 Osteoporosis is the primary cause of broken bones.
 Osteoporosis is largely preventable with sufficient
calcium and exercise.
 Negative stereotypes against appearing
old exist for both men and women
 Women, especially in Western cultures,
suffer from the double standard for
appearance, where women who show
signs of aging are judged more harshly
than are men.
– Women are more likely to dye their
hair.
– Women are more likely to have plastic
surgery.
 Internal Aging
 Significant changes also occur in the internal
functioning of the organ systems.
 The brain becomes smaller and lighter with age.
– There is a reduction of blood flow to the brain.
– The space between the skull and the
brain doubles from age 20 to 70.
– The number of neurons, or brain cells,
declines in some parts of the brain,
though not as much as was once thought.
 Because of hardening of the arteries and
shrinking of blood vessels, a 75-year-old's
heart pumps less than three-quarters of
the blood it pumped during early
adulthood.
 The efficiency of the respiratory system
declines with age.
 The digestive system produces less
digestive juice and is less efficient in
pushing food through the system (result =
more constipation).
Changing
Physical
Capacities
 Slowing Reaction Time
~ Older adult's reaction time slows significantly.
 The PERIPHERAL SLOWING HYPOTHESIS
suggests that overall processing speed declines
in the peripheral nervous system (spinal cord and
brain).
 The GENERALIZED SLOWING HYPOTHESIS is
the theory that processing in all parts of the
nervous system, including the brain, is less
efficient.
– It takes older individuals longer to respond
– Decision processes are slowed down
– Older people have more accidents (next slide)
~~Although it takes individuals longer to respond,
the perception of time increases with age!
– Time generally seems to rush by faster for older
adults than younger ones
– The reason may be changes in the way the brain
coordinates it internal time clock (Mangan, 97)
Vehicle Fatalities Across the Life Span

Drivers over age 70 have a fatal accident record

comparable to teens. Why?
The Senses: Sight, Sound, Taste & Smell
 Old age brings a distinct declining in the sense
organs of the body.
 Vision
– Lens becomes less transparent and the pupils
shrink.
– The optic nerve becomes less efficient.
– Distant objects become less acute.
– More light is needed to see and it takes longer
to adjust to a change from light to darkness and
vice versa.
 Driving at night becomes difficult.
 Reading becomes more of a strain and
eye strain occurs more easily.
 Cataracts, cloudy or opaque areas of
the lens of the eye that interfere with
passing light, frequently develop.
 Cataracts can be surgically removed.
 Intraocular lens implants can replace
old lens
 Glaucoma occurs when pressure in the fluid of the
eye increases, either because the fluid cannot drain
properly or because too much fluid is produced.
 Glaucoma can be corrected with drugs or surgery.
 It must be detected early enough.
 The most common cause of blindness in people
over the age of 60 is age-related macular
degeneration (AMD) which affects the macula, a
yellowish area of the eye located near the retina at
which visual perception is most acute.
 ( Sight, Sound, Taste & Smell in Late
Adulthood, continued)

 Hearing
– 30 % of adults between 65 and
74 have some hearing loss.
– 50 % of adults between over 75
have hearing loss.
– High frequencies are the hardest
to hear.
 Hearing aids would be helpful 75 percent
of the time but only 20 percent of people
wear them.
 They are imperfect and amplify all sounds
so it is difficult to discern conversations.
 There is a stigma attached to wearing a
hearing aid.
 Because they cannot hear, some people
withdraw from society because they feel
left out and lonely.
 ( Sight, Sound, Taste & Smell in Late Adulthood,
continued)
 Taste and smell
– Both senses become less discriminating in old
age.
– Due to decline in taste buds on tongue.
– Olfactory bulbs in the brain shrink and reduce
the ability to smell.
– People eat less and get poor nutrition.
– Older people may oversalt their food and
develop hypertension, or high blood pressure
 Health and Wellness in Late Adulthood

 Contrary to popular opinion, most

elderly people are in relatively
good health for most of old age:
¾ of people 65 and older rate
their health as good, very good,
or excellent.
 Most older people have at least
one chronic, long-term condition.
 Common Physical Disorders
in Late Adulthood…
 Arthritis, an inflammation of one or
more joints, is common, striking
around half of older people.
 Approximately one-third of older
people have hypertension, or high
blood pressure.
 The leading causes (three-fourths of
all deaths) of death in elderly people
are: heart disease, cancer, and
stroke
 Psychological & Mental Disorders
 15 to 25 % of those over age 65 show some
symptoms of psychological malady.
 Depression is one of the more common problems for
this age group
– Characterized by intense sadness, pessimism,
and hopelessness.
– May be a result of cumulative losses in life.
– Declining health may contribute.
 Some psychological problems such as anxiety may
be caused by inappropriate drug doses
 The most common mental disorder of old people is
DEMENTIA, a broad category covering several
diseases, each of which includes serious memory loss
accompanied by declines in other mental functioning.
 Signs are declining memory, lessened intellectual
abilities, and impaired judgment.
 Less than 2 % of people between the ages of 60 and
65 have it; percentages double every 5 years after 65.
 1/3 of those over 85 suffer from some sort of dementia
 The most common form of dementia
is ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE, which
is a progressive brain disorder that
produces loss of memory and
confusion.
 Alzheimer's kills 100,000 people a
year.
 If current trends continue, by the
year 2040, almost 7 million
Americans over 85 will be victims.
The symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease
appear gradually.
 Unusual forgetfulness.
 Trouble recalling particular words during
conversation.
 First recent memory goes, then older
memories.
 Eventually, total confusion, inability to speak
intelligibly or to recognize family and friends.
 Toward the end, loss of muscle control and
confinement to bed.
 There is no cure for Alzheimer's.

 Biologically, problems with protein

production occurs.
– The brain shrinks, and several areas of the
hippocampus and frontal and temporal lobes
deteriorate, certain neurons die, and create
a lack of acetylcholine.
No known triggers are understood to cause Alzheimer's,
but it runs in families.

 Genetics clearly play a role

 High blood pressure & diet may
increase susceptibility
 Viruses, immune system dysfunction,
hormone imbalances being
investigated as possible explanations
 No cure, but symptoms treated…
 Several drug treatments appear
promising: Tacrine, or Cognex, which
are forms of acetylcholine
– Only helps about 20 percent.
– No drug treatment is totally effective.
 Anti-inflammatory drugs promising
 Vitamin E and C are currently being
investigated as extremely effective at
relieving symptoms
Because all Alzheimer patients are eventually
bedridden, many end their lives in nursing
homes
 2/3 of those in nursing homes!
~ People who care for Alzheimer’s often become
secondary victims
 Stress
 Overwhelming care demands
~Therapy & support groups often help a great deal!
~See tips for caring for people with Alzheimer’s
Disease in your text.
 Wellness in Late Adulthood
 People can do specific things to enhance their
physical and psychological well-being and their
longevity during old age.
 Eat a proper diet.
– 16 % to 50 % of the elderly do not have adequate
nutrition.
– It is difficult to shop and cook for oneself.
– Little motivation to eat when living alone.
– Taste and smell deteriorate and eating is not as
enjoyable
 Exercise.
 Illness may prevent older
people from exercising.
 Poor health or nutrition may
reduce energy.
 Avoid threats to health, such
as smoking.
A recent study of 7000+ men aged 40-59 found that not smoking, keeping
weight down, & exercising can reduce disease.

To find your body mass index (BMI, used above), multiply your weight in
pounds by 705. Divide the result by your height in inches, then divide by
your height again.
~~ Sometimes older people experience unique
problems that keep them from following these
guidelines…

~~> Getting enough exercise may be

problematic
--decreased muscle strength &
flexibility
--illness, weather, poor nutrition
~~> 16-50% of the elderly do not have adequate
nutrition
~~ Several million go hungry each day
--too poor to buy healthy food
--too sick to shop or cook for themselves
--lower motivation since cooking for one
--declines in earlier taste and smell sensitivity
--lifelong patterns
 Sexuality in Late Adulthood:
Use it or lose it
 Increasing evidence suggests that people are
sexually active well into their 80s and 90s.
 Good physical and mental health are necessary.
 Previous sexual activity increases the desire for
sex - "Use it or lose it."
 2/3 of men and women over age 70 had sex with
their spouses on average about once a week.
 The percentage of people who view their partner
as physically attractive increases with age…
 More than 50% of Americans over age 45 find their
partners attractive, and as time goes on, more attractive.
 There are potential difficulties related to sexual functioning
– It takes men longer to get an erection, and they have a
longer refractory period (time following an orgasm during
which men are unable to become aroused again)
– women's vaginas sometimes become thin and inelastic,
and produce less lubrication
~ Despite these physical changes, sexual activity can
continue and flourish throughout the lifespan
~ Studies: having sex regularly is associated with a lower
risk of death (Purdy, 1995, Davey et al., 1997)
 Theories of Aging…
 There are 2 major approaches to explain why we age.
 GENETIC PREPROGRAMMING THEORIES OF AGING
suggest that our body's DNA genetic code contains a
built-in time limit for the reproduction of human cells.
– May be due to fact that genetic material has a "death
gene" that is programmed to direct the body to
deteriorate and die.
– May be that genetic instructions for running the body
can be read only a certain number of times before
they become illegible
 WEAR-AND-TEAR THEORIES OF AGING
argue that the mechanical functions of the body
simply wear out with age.
– Some subtheories say that the body's constant
manufacture of energy to fuel its activities creates
by-products, which eventually reach such high levels
that they impair the body's normal functioning.
– This is a more optimistic theory, which suggests that
longevity can be extended by eliminating the toxins
produced by the body.
Life Expectancy: How Long Have I Got??

 LIFE EXPECTANCY, the average age of death

for members of a populations, has been
steadily increasing.
 In 1776, the average life expectancy was 35.
 In 1900, the average life expectancy was 47.
 In 1996, the average life expectancy is 74.
 By 2050, the average life expectancy is
predicted to be 80.
 Living to Age 100

If life expectancy continues to increase, it may be common for

people to live to be 100 by the end of this century. What
implications does this have for society?
 Reasons for increases in life
expectancy…
– Health conditions are better.
– Many diseases are wiped out or better
controlled through medicine.
– People's working conditions are better.
– We are working on improving
environmental conditions.
 The maximum possible human life span is
believed to hover around 120.
 To extend the maximum life span would probably take
genetic alterations.
 Figures for life expectancy mask individual gender, race,
and ethnic disparities.
 The average Caucasian in the U.S. is likely to live 76
years.
 The average African-American is likely to live 71 years.
 The average Japanese is likely to live 79 years.
 The average Gambian is likely to live less than 45 years.
 A male born in the U.S. is most likely to live 73 years.
 A female born in the U.S. is most likely to live 80 years.
 Possible reasons women live longer:
– Women's hormones (estrogen and progesterone)
protect them from heart attacks.
– Women may eat more healthy diets than men.
– Women experience less stress in the workforce than
men (Do you agree with this? What about gender
role strain & the pressure of combining paid and
nonpaid work?)
~ Racial disparities may reflect societal & cultural
differences…
Better eating habits (Japanese)
Lower socioeconomic well-being (African-Americans).
Food quality
Ability to obtain health care
 Time for rest/relaxation/exercise
* In contrast to Caucasians, whose life expectancy keeps
edging up, African Americans have actually experienced
slight declines in life expectancy in recent years.
Life Expectancy of African Americans & European Americans
Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood
 The idea that older people become less
cognitively adept comes from
misinterpretations of research evidence
– Cross sectional research does not take
cohort effects into account (influences
attributable to growing up in a
particular time period/era).
– Longitudinal studies suffer from
practice effects and sample attributions
 Recent research (by Schaie) used cross-sequential methods,
which combine cross-sectional and longitudinal methods
– Included 500 subjects (aged 20-70)
– Tested every 7 years
– More subjects added (to total 5,000)
~~ Results show no uniform pattern of adult age-related changes
across intellectual abilities!
--Some abilities decline beginning at age 25 (fluid intelligence
[ability to deal with new situations])
--Some stay steady or increase (crystallized intelligence
[acquired store of information, skills, strategies])
 Changes in Intellectual Functioning (Schaie, 1994)

Although some intellectual abilities decline across adulthood,

others stay steady.
 There were some individual differences in the
patterns of change…

 For some, intellectual skills began to decline in

the 30’s
 Others showed NO decline until the 70’s
 1/3 in their 70’s scored higher than the
average young adult
--Why?
Certain environmental and cultural factors are
related to greater or lesser intellectual decline
(environmental and cultural factors related to greater or
lesser intellectual decline, continued)
 Lesser declines
– Good health
– Higher SES
– Involvement in an intellectually stimulating
environment
– A flexible personality
– Being married to a bright spouse
– Feeling satisfied with one’s accomplishments
in earlier periods of late adulthood
 Schaie & Willis taught people whose
reasoning and spatial skills had
declined a variety of skills. More than
½ showed a significant improvement
 This plasticity (modifiability of
behavior) suggests that there is nothing
fixed about the changes that may occur
in intellectual abilities during late
adulthood (“use it or lose it”).
Memory in Late Adulthood
 Cross-cultural memory research
shows that in societies where older
people are held in high esteem,
people are less likely to show
memory losses than in societies
where they are held in less regard!
 Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
 When memory declines that can be directly
attributed to aging do occur, they are limited
primarily to episodic memory
– Episodic memory relates to specific life
experiences
 Other types of memory are mostly unaffected by age
– Semantic memories (general knowledge & facts)
– Implicit memories (memories that people are not
consciously aware of)
 Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
 The capacity for new memories does
change during late adulthood
 Short-term memory declines gradually
until age 70, and then becomes more
pronounced (less gradual)
– Information presented quickly and verbally
is forgotten sooner
– New information is more difficult to recall,
perhaps because it is not processed as
efficiently
 Memory in Late Adulthood, continued

 In late adulthood, people are subject

to some of the same principals of recall
as younger people
 In both groups, autobiographical
memory (memories of information
about one’s own life) frequently
follows the Pollyanna Principal
– Pleasant memories are more likely to be
recalled than unpleasant memories
Memory in Late Adulthood, continued
 People in all stages of adulthood also are
more likely to recall things that fit with
their current self-view
 Particular periods of life are remembered
more easily than others for adults
– 70-year olds recall their 20s and 30s
best
– 50-year olds recall their teenage years
and 20s best
Remembrances
of Things Past
 Explanations of memory changes in late
adulthood tend to fall into 3 main
categories:
1) Environmental Factors
~ Certain things that cause declines in memory may
be more common among older people…
 drugs
 retirement
 lower motivation in testing situations
 (3 main categories of memory changes,
continued)

2) Information Processing Deficits

 Inability to inhibit irrelevant
information and thought declines
 Difficulty paying attention and
organizing info
 Processing speed declines
 Less efficient memory retrieval
 (3 main categories of
memory changes in late adulthood, continued)

3) Biological Factors
 Brain and body deterioration
 Accelerated frontal lobe
deterioration

 Continuation of education in late

adulthood can improve cognitive
skills
 Improving cognitive skills in late adulthood
through mental stimulation
 Community Centers
 Classes/programs specially designed for adults
 Free tuition at colleges & Universities
~ Although some elderly people avoid these
opportunities because of concerns about their
intellectual capabilities, this is not supported by
research!
~ Other students & professors value diversity in the
classroom: Win/win situation!
~Being around others can help with cognitive functioning!
~Being around others can help with cognitive functioning
 Don’t forget to keep up
with your reading!