Introduction to Research

methodology
Prof. AMAL HASSAN MOHAMMED IBRAHIM

Lecture I
Unit One
Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Definition of Research
1.3 Characteristics of Research
1.4 Objectives of Research
1.5 Nature of Research
1.6 Importance of Research
1.7 Relevance of Research
1.8 Restrictions in Research
1.9 Research Process
1.10 Difference between Research Method and Research Process
Introduction
• Most of us recognize that the progress which has been made in our
society has been largely the result of research.
• Research simply seeks the answer of certain questions which have not
been answered so far and the answers depend upon human efforts.
• As beginners in research you should understand that research is not all
technical, complex, statistics and computers. It can be a very simple
activity designed to provide answers to very simple questions relating to
day-to-day activities.
• On the other hand, research procedures can also be employed to
formulate intricate theories or laws that govern our lives.
• Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information
to increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the
function of the researcher to contribute to the understanding of the
phenomenon and to communicate that understanding to others.
• Research may aims to:
1. Discover new facts or verify and test old facts
2. Analyze their sequences, inter-relationships and explanations which
are derived within an appropriate theoretical frame of reference
3. Develop new scientific tools, concepts, and theories which would
facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior in decision
making.
Term Research
• The term ‘Research’ consists of two words:
Research = Re + Search
• ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out something.
• The dictionary defines the former as a prefix meaning again, anew or over again and
the latter as a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to
probe.
• Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.
• Research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different
dimensions and collects the data and on the basis of data he draws some
conclusions.
Suppose you are working in the field of health some of the following questions
may come to your mind or someone else may ask you for their answers:
• How many patients do I see every day?
• What are some of the most common conditions prevalent among my patients?
• What are the causes of these conditions?
• Why do some people have a particular condition whereas others do not?
• What are the health needs of the community?
• What are the benefits of this program to the community?
• How do I demonstrate the effectiveness of my service?
• Why do some people use the service while others do not?
• What do people think about the service?
• How satisfied are patients with the service?
• How effective is the service?
• How can the service be improved?
 Consumers have the right to ask questions about the
quality and effectiveness of the service they are receiving
and you, as the service provider, have an obligation to
answer their questions. Some of the questions that a
consumer may ask are:

• How effective is the service that I am receiving?

• Am I getting value for money?
• How well trained are the service providers?
 Perspectives of Research

Social
Legal Health Problem
Basic (Trauma)
Science
Basic Economic
Science

Diagnosis Clinical Prognosis Therapy

Why do we need to do research?
• As healthcare professionals cannot afford to take risks, research is needed.
For clinical trials, this is even a legal requirement in that pharmaceutical
companies cannot obtain marketing authorization (i.e. permission to sell
their new drugs) until they have proved to the relevant authorities that the
drug is safe and effective. They do this by performing a series of clinical trials.
Carefully organized and controlled research enables researchers to:
1. test and compare different theories and approaches
2. explore different methods and learn from other people’s experience.
3. It also enables them to rule out or at least consider external factors which
might influence their results.
Research: a way to gather evidence for
your practice
• Evidence-based practice (EBP) is the delivery of
services based upon research evidence about their
effectiveness; the service provider’s clinical judgement
as to the suitability and appropriateness of the service
for a client; and the client’s own preference as to the
acceptance of the service.
• EBP is fast becoming a service delivery norm among
many professions.
 Research Methodology
VS
Evidence-Based Medicine
 Doing
Research Research

EBM Using
 Definition of Research
• Grinnell further adds: ‘research is a structured inquiry
that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve
problems and creates new knowledge that is generally
applicable.’ (1993)
• Burns (1997) defines research as ‘a systematic
investigation to find answers to a problem’.
• According to Kerlinger (1986), ‘scientific research is a
systematic, controlled empirical and critical investigation
of propositions about the presumed relationships about
various phenomena’.
Characteristics of Research
1) Controlled:
• There are many factors that affect on outcome. In a study of
cause and effect relationships it is important to be able to
link the effect (s) with the cause (s) and vice versa.
•  All variables except those that are tested/experimented upon are kept
constant.
• The concept of control implies that, in exploring set up your
study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors
affecting the relationship.
Characteristics of Research (continued)

2) Rigorous:
• You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to
find answer to questions are relevant; appropriate and justified.
Again, the degree of rigor varies between the physical and the social
sciences.
• the research methodology has to be designed so as to attempt to
disprove the hypothesis in every way possible (experiments,
estimation, post-estimation tests, etc.). If it cannot be disproved, then
you can say with confidence that the evidence corroborates with your
theoretical framework
Characteristics of Research (continued)

3) Systematic:
•  follows orderly and sequential procedure. This implies that the
procedures adopted to undertake an investigation follow a
certain logic sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in
a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.
4) Valid and Verifiable:
• This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis
of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and
others.
Characteristics of Research (continued)

5) Empirical:
• This means that any conclusions drawn are based upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from real life experiences or
observations.
• based on observations and experimentation on theories
6) Critical:
• Critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods is crucial to
a research inquiry. The process of investigation must be fool proof
and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures
used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
Characteristics of Research (continued)

7) The research has a purpose - it aims to solve a problem by investigating

it and providing actionable evidence.
8) Scientific rigor - the research methodology has to be designed so as to
attempt to disprove the hypothesis in every way possible (experiments,
estimation, post-estimation tests, etc.). If it cannot be disproved, then
you can say with confidence that the evidence corroborates with your
theoretical framework
9) The hypothesis should be testable - you should be able to logically test
whether your theory is empirically supported by data
Characteristics of Research (continued)

10) The findings should be replicable - that is, the findings should be consistent across
the board when the research is carried out multiple times in similar circumstances
11) The methodology should be constructed in such a way so as to give
maximum precision (the degree to which your data represents reality)
and confidence (the probability that the estimations are correct - the confidence
interval)
12) The inferences drawn from the results of the estimations should be objective-
the researcher should be completely impartial when interpreting the results, and not
be guided by biases or emotions
13) The findings from your research should be applicable to the entire relevant
population - that is, they should be generalizable
Characteristics of Research (continued)

14) When researching a phenomenon, you are testing the hypothesis,

which is a statement of causality.
• Remember that causal investigation is all about trying to explain the
variance of your dependent variable.
• It is recommended that the model you construct to explain your
dependent variable should have as few explanatory variables as possible.
Only decide to include additional variables if they make an exponential
contribution to the model’s explaining power.
Summary of Characteristics of Research (continued)

• The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of

‘Research’
1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support
his hypotheses.
Summary of Characteristics of Research (continued)

7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.

8. It endeavors to organize data in quantitative terms.
9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions
that may be unpopular and bring social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalizations are arrived at carefully and
cautiously.
Objectives of Research

• The objective of research is to discover answers to questions by applying scientific procedures.

• In other words, the main aim of research is to find out truth which is hidden and has not yet been
discovered.
• Although every research study has its own specific objectives, research objectives may be broadly
grouped as:
1. To gain familiarity with or new insights into a phenomena (formulative
research studies)
2. To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or
a situation (descriptive research studies).
3. To analyze the frequency with which something occur (diagnostic research
studies).
4. To examine a hypothesis of a causal relationship between two variables
(hypothesis-testing research studies).
NATURE OF RESEARCH
• Research is process in which in-depth study of the problem is carried
out. This requires investigation to be conducted based on collections and
compilation of data along with its interpretation and presentation.
• Research is properly conducted, it helpful in decision making process.
There cannot be any research exercise which will not yield any additional
input to knowledge. As such research involved critical examination of
facts which leads to formation of new concepts of modification of old
concepts.
• The research activities will help us in testing of hypothesis and
establishing relationship between variables by this we can identify the
methods for solution of the research problems.
NATURE OF RESEARCH
• The research is a fact finding process, which influences the
decisions to be taken.
• This also provides an opportunity to check the effectiveness of
the decision taken.
• The research is a scientific process and it is required to
conducted in proper sequences, which includes activities right
from identification of research problem, formulation of
hypothesis, testing of hypothesis, observation and relationship
of variables and drawing of conclusions.
IMPORTANCE and RELIVANCE OF
RESEARCH
• All development and progress in the society is an out come of a
research work.
• The development of logical thinking is promoted by conducting the
research activities.
• Research provides base for the policies formation of the Government
related to health, agriculture, industries and infra structural services
in the region.
• Research has special importance in relation to solving various
problems of health, business and industries.
IMPORTANCE and RELIVANCE OF
RESEARCH
• health research has high value to society. It can provide important
information about disease trends and risk factors, outcomes of treatment or
public health interventions, functional abilities, patterns of care, and health
care costs and use. The different approaches to research provide
complementary insights. Clinical trials can provide important information
about the efficacy and adverse effects of medical interventions by controlling
the variables that could impact the results of the study, but feedback from
real-world clinical experience is also crucial for comparing and improving the
use of different modalities.
• Collectively, these forms of health research have led to significant discoveries,
the development of new therapies, and a remarkable improvement in health
care and public health.
RESTRICTIONS IN RESEARCH
• The research suffered with certain restrictions in spite of its relevance
and usefulness. The social research is subject to changes in the
society.
• As the social structure changes, the decisions taken can not be
implemented as it is.
• There are several other factors which influence the decision.
• Unless these factors are properly analyzed decision may be biased.
RESEARCH PROCESS
• There are various approaches to research work.
• Every research project is different from each other on account its time
and place in which it is to be conducted. But all the research projects
will have common understanding of the society and have common
steps through which research is conducted.
RESEARCH PROCESS
• These steps can summarized as:
1. Formulate the research problem
2. Get the background information.
3. Refine your search topic
4. Consider your research option.
5. Review of the existing literature
6. Formation and development of working hypothesis
7. Preparation of research design
RESEARCH PROCESS

8. Select the appropriate tool (i.e. sampling procedure Determining

sample design)
9. Use the tool effectively
10. Locate your material (i.e. data for research - Data collection)
11. Analyses the material located (i.e. data analysis)
12. Testing of hypothesis
13. Organize and write report. (Data interpretation)
14. References and bibliography.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESEARCH
METHOD
AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
• Understanding the difference between methods and methodology is
of paramount importance.              
• Research methods are the tools, techniques or processes that we use
in our research (a component of research). These might be, for
example, surveys, interviews, Photovoice, or participant observation.
Methods and how they are used are shaped by methodology.
• Methodology is the study of how research is done, how we find out
about things, and how knowledge is gained. In other words,
methodology is about the principles that guide our research practices.
Methodology therefore explains why we’re using certain methods or
tools in our research.
Types of Research
• Types of research can be looked at from three different perspectives:

1. applications of the findings of the research study.

2. objectives of the study.
3. mode of enquiry used in conducting the study.
Types of research
1- Application Perspective
• Pure research: involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses
that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not
have practical application at the present time or in the future.
• Examples: developing a sampling technique that can be applied to a
particular situation; developing a methodology to assess the validity of a
procedure; developing an instrument, say, to measure the stress level in
people
• Applied research: Most of the research in the social sciences is applied.
The research techniques, procedures and methods that form the body of
research methodology are applied to the collection of information about
various aspects of a situation, issue, problem or phenomenon
Types of Research:
2- Objectives perspective
1. Descriptive study: attempts to describe systematically a situation,
problem, phenomenon, service or program, or provides information
about, say, the living conditions of a community, or describes attitudes
towards an issue.
For example, it may attempt to describe the types of service provided
by an organization, the administrative structure of an organization
2. Correlational study: to discover or establish the existence of a
relationship/association/interdependence between two or more aspects of
a situation.
• Example: What is the effect of a health service on the control of a disease
Types of Research:
2- Objectives perspective
3. Explanatory research: attempts to clarify why and how there is a
relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
• Advantages of Explanatory Research:
A. Causal studies may play an instrumental role in terms of identifying reasons
behind a wide range of processes, as well as, assessing the impacts of
changes on existing norms, processes etc.
B. Causal studies usually offer the advantages of replication if necessity arises
C. This type of studies are associated with greater levels of internal validity
due to systematic selection of subjects
Types of Research:
2- Objectives perspective

4. Exploratory research: This is when a study is undertaken with the

objective either to explore an area where little is known or to
investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research
study.
When a study is carried out to determine its feasibility it is also called
a feasibility study or a pilot study.
Types of Research: 3- Enquiry perspective

• This type of research includes two approaches of enquiry

are:
a) Structured Approach: includes objective, design, sample
& questionnaire ask from respondent. It is considered as
more appropriate towards resolution of problem. It is usually
considered as Quantitative research mode.
 Types of Research: 3- Enquiry perspective
Quantitative research is defined as a the systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable
data and performing statistical, mathematical or computational techniques.
Example:  the survey conducted to understand the amount of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when
the patient walks into the hospital.
1. Survey Research:
a. Survey Research is the most fundamental tool for all quantitative research methodologies and studies.
Surveys used to ask questions to a sample of respondents, using various types such as  online polls,
online surveys, paper questionnaires  
b.  Cross-sectional surveys are observational surveys, conducted in situations where the researcher intends
to collect data from a sample of the target population at a given point in time
c. Longitudinal surveys are also observational surveys but, unlike cross-sectional surveys, longitudinal
surveys are conducted across various time durations in order to observe a change in respondent
behavior and thought-processes.
2. Correlation Research:
Correlation research is conducted to establish a relationship between two closely knit entities and how one
impacts the other and what are the changes that are eventually observed. This research method is carried
out to give value to naturally occurring relationships and a minimum of two different groups are required to
successfully conduct this quantitative research method.
 Types of Research: 3- Enquiry perspective
Quantitative research is defined as a the systematic investigation of phenomena by
gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical or computational
techniques.
3. Causal-Comparative Research:
This research method mainly depends on the factor of comparison. Also called the quasi-
experimental research, this quantitative research method is used by researchers to draw
conclusions about cause-effect equation between two or more variables, where one
variable is dependent on the other independent variable. Example of Causal-
Comparative Research Questions: The impact of aerobic exercises on a teenager.
4. Experimental Research:  is usually based on one or more theories. This theory has not
be proved in the past and is merely a supposition. In an experimental research, an analysis
is done around proving or disproving the statement.
• This type of quantitative research method is mainly used in natural or social sciences as
there are various statements which need to be proved right or wrong.  
• Traditional research methods are more effective than modern techniques.
Types of Research: 3- Enquiry perspective
•
b)Un-Structured approach also termed as
Qualitative Research it is form of social inquiry
that focuses on the way people interpret and
make sense of their experiences and the world in
which they live. 
Types of Research: 3- Enquiry perspective
• 2- Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative
phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. It focuses
on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena and relies on the direct
experiences of human beings as meaning-making agents in their every day lives
• What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative research?
• Quantitative research is concerned with measurement and numbers, while
qualitative research is concerned with understanding and words. Qualitative
methods allow the researcher to study selected issues in depth and detail without
being constrained by pre-determined categories of analysis. Quantitative
methods require the use of standardized measures in order to fit the different
perspectives and experiences of people into a limited number of predetermined
response categories to which numbers are assigned.
References
• Yogesh kumar Singh. Fundamentals of Research Methodology and statistics. (2006), Published by New Age
International (P) Ltd., Publishers.
• 2011_0009_Vincze_Szilvia-Research_Methodology.pdf
• http://www.tmv.edu.in/pdf/Distance_education/MA(English)/EAS%20304%20Research%20Methodology.pdf
• http://www.etk.pte.hu/protected/OktatasiAnyagok/%21Palyazati/Kutatasmodszertan_Eng.pdf
• http://www.modares.ac.ir/uploads/Agr.Oth.Lib.17.pdf
• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978032326171500001X
• https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9571/
• file:///E:/analysis.pdf
• Franco Franchignoni. (2010) RESEARCH ISSUES IN PHYSICAL& REHABILITATION MEDICINE.
Tipografia PI-ME Editrice S.r.l. 27100 Pavia, Italy
• Ranjit Kumar. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY; a step-by-step guide for beginners. SAGE Publications Ltd. 3ed
edition