David Dixon - Mixing Theory
David Dixon - Mixing Theory
David Dixon - Mixing Theory
David G. Dixon
University of British Columbia
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
O2
Gas bubble
FeS2
O2
Fe3+, SO42-
O2
3+
Fe
Gas bubble
2+ + 3+ ZnS
O2 + 4 Fe + 4 H = 4 Fe + 2 H2O
O2
2+
Fe
2+
Zn
+ + 2+
O2 + 4 Cu + 4 H = 4 Cu + 2 H2O
2+
Cu
Gas bubble
2+ n+ + (n+1)+
Cu +S = Cu + S CuFeS2
O2 or Ni3S2
Cu+ Sn+
+
Cu
3+ 2+
Fe or Ni
NO
Gas bubble
+ +
NO2 + NO + 2 H = 2 NO + H2O FeAsS
2 NO + O2
= 2 NO2
NO2 NO+
Axial-Flow Impellers
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Radial-Flow Impellers
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Mixing Dynamics
Mixing Dynamics
By dimensional analysis:
P N 3D5 ρ
Q N D3
H N 2D2
hence P H Q ρ
where:
P = power applied to the impeller (W)
Q = pumping capacity of the impeller (m3/s)
H = velocity head (or shear) developed by the impeller (m2/s2)
N = impeller speed (1/s)
D = impeller diameter (m)
ρ = fluid density (kg/m3)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Flow vs Shear
At constant power:
Q 1
= D8 / 3 = 8 / 5
H N
• increasing the rotational speed does just the opposite, albeit somewhat
less dramatically.
For shear, small impellers run at high rotational speeds are preferred.
For flow, large impellers run at low rotational speeds are preferred.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Flow vs Shear
Flow vs Shear
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
P
N Po N Ne 3 5
N D ρ
This number represents a "drag coefficient" or "friction factor" for impellors, and
can therefore be correlated with the impeller Reynolds number:
D2 N ρ D2 N
N Re
μ ν
where:
μ = kinematic viscosity (kg/m/s)
ν = dynamic viscosity (m2/s)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
The rate of liquid-solid mass transfer of dissolved species A per unit surface area
of the mineral particle is expressed:
j A k m (C Ab C As )
where:
jA = flux of species A to the mineral surface (mol/m2/s)
km = mass-transfer coefficient (m/s)
CAb, CAs = concentrations of species A in the bulk solution and at the mineral
surface, respectively (mol/m3)
When the reaction at the surface is fast relative to liquid-solid mass transfer, then
the mass transfer step will be rate controlling, and CAs may be taken as zero.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
1/ 2 1/ 3
km d p d pv p ρ μ
N Sh, p 2 0.6 N Re,
1/ 2
p N 1/3
Sc or 2 0.6
DA μ ρ DA
where:
NSh,p = the particle Sherwood number (analogous to the Nusselt number in
heat transfer)
NRe,p = the particle Reynolds number
NSc = the Schmidt number (analogous to the Prandtl number in heat
transfer)
dp = particle diameter (m)
DA = diffusivity of species A (m2/s)
vp = slip velocity of a particle relative to the surrounding fluid (m/s)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
d p2 g ( ρ p ρ)
vp
18 μ
where:
ρp = solid particle density (kg/m3)
Substituting into the Ranz and Marshall correlation and solving for the mass-
transfer coefficient gives the Harriott equation:
DA d p g ρ ( ρ p ρ)
3
1/ 2
μ
1/ 3
km = 2 + 0.6
dp 2
18 μ ρ DA
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
-3.7
8
log km (m/s)
-3.9 7
6
5
4
-4.0
3
2
-4.1
-4.2
1
p = 0
-4.3
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0
log d p (mm)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
T T ν d p [ g ( ρ p ρ) / ρ] X
0 .1 0 . 2 0.45 0.13
N js = S ,
D C D 0.85
where:
Njs = impeller speed to just suspend solids (s–1)
S = dimensionless function of system geometry
T = tank diameter (m)
C = impeller clearance from tank bottom (m)
dp = Sauter mean particle size (m)
X = pulp density (%)
Note that this equation only describes the critical impeller speed to lift particles
off the tank bottom. It does not describe complete particle dispersion, which is
unnecessary for liquid-solid mass transfer as discussed above.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
1.40
T C
DT * S 0.99 exp 2.18 (6-blade disk (Rushton) turbine)
D T
1.20
T C
FBT * S 1.43 exp 1.95 (6-blade flat-blade turbine)
D T
0.83
T C
PBT ** S 2.28 exp 0.65 (6-blade 45 pitched-blade turbine)
D T
0.79
T C
HE - 3** S 3.49 exp 0.66 (Chemineer HE-3 axial flow propeller)
D T
*
Correlation only valid if lower circulation loop is suppressed
**
Pitched and axial-flow impellers pumping downward
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
D C 1
= =
T T 3
DT * S 9.53
FBT * S 10.24
PBT ** S 7.05
HE - 3** S 10.36
Hence, the critical impeller speed is not that sensitive to impeller type under
ungassed conditions, although it is very sensitive to impeller placement above the
tank bottom (as evidenced by the fact that S is an exponential function of C/T),
and especially so for radial-flow impellers.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
DT FBT
PBT HE-3
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
N js D 0.85 constant
P
D 0.55
V
Hence, the required power per unit volume (specific power) for solids suspension
decreases as the dimensions of the tank increase.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
ν = 10–6 m2/s
dp = 100 μm = 10–4 m
g = 9.81 m/s2
ρp = 8,380 kg/m3
X = 20% (by mass)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
EXAMPLE 1 – (continued)
To calculate the suspension power requirement, we will utilize the Power number
equation assuming turbulent flow:
Pjs N Po ( N 3js D 5 ρ)
In order to achieve the most conservative estimate, we will employ the slurry
density in the Power number equation:
100 100
ρ slurry 1,214 kg/m 3
100 X X 80 20
ρ ρ p 1,000 8,380
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
4.5
4.0
3.5 0.30
Njs (Hz)
3.0
2.5 0.35
2.0
0.40
1.5
0.45
1.0 0.50
0.5
0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.18
C/T
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
5.0
D/T =
0.25
4.5
4.0
3.5
0.30
Njs (Hz)
3.0
0.35
2.5
0.40
2.0
0.45
1.5 0.50
1.0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
C/T
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Power requirement: DT
300
D/T =
0.25
250
200
0.30
Pjs (kW)
150 0.35
0.40
100
0.45
0.50
50
0
0.03 0.06 0.09 0.12 0.15 0.18
C/T
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
49
46
43
40
Pjs (kW)
37
D/T = 0.25 D/T = 0.50
34
31
28
0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35
C/T
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
N js ( g ) N js (0.83 0.31 Q g )
where
Njs(g) = impeller speed to just suspend solids with gas sparging (s–1)
Qg = gas flowrate (volumes of gas per volume of tank per minute or vvm)
The suspending ability is initially enhanced at low gas rates due to the increased
in fluid flow induced by the gas, but is diminished once the gas rate exceeds 0.55
vvm due to the onset of impeller flooding.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
s
j Na = (k m ) Na C Na C
b
Na
j Cl = (k m ) Cl C Cls C Clb
j Na j Cl s
C Na C = K sp , NaCl
s
Cl
Dissolution of Salts
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
j Zn 2 (k m ) Zn 2 C Zn
s
2 C
b
Zn 2
j H ( k m ) H C Hb C Hs
s
C Zn 2
2 j Zn 2 j H K eq, ZnS
C
s
H
2
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
1 dN U3O8
rU3O8 2 k m C Ob 2
S U 3O 8 dt
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Solution. Recasting the rate law for pitchblende dissolution in terms of particle
diameter thus:
then we can define the particle shrinkage rate in terms of the Harriott equation:
d dp 4 M U 3O8 k m C Ob 2
dt ρ U 3O 8
4 M U 3 O 8 DO 2 C b 1/ 2
d g ρ ( ρ U 3O 8 ρ ) μ
3
1/ 3
O2
2 + 0.6 p
ρ U 3O 8 d p 18 μ 2 ρ DO
2
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
EXAMPLE 2 – (continued)
dp
ξ
d p ,0
4 M U 3O8 DO 2 C b d p , 0 g ρ ( ρ U 3O 8 ρ )
3
1/ 2
μ
1/ 3
dξ O2 2
+ 0.6
ξ 1/ 2
dt ρ U 3O8 d p2, 0 ξ 18 μ 2 ρ DO
2
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
EXAMPLE 2 – (continued)
dξ 2
2.0 10 5 8.6 ξ
dt ξ
By numerical integration, the time required to fully dissolved the 100-μm U3O8
particle would be 4,200 s or 70 min. Ans.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
R k g a p Ab p A* k l a C A* C Ab
where:
R = volumetric absorption rate (kmol/m3/s)
kg = gas-side mass transfer coefficient (kmol/m2/s/Pa)
kl = liquid-side mass transfer coefficient (m/s)
a = volume-specific gas-liquid interfacial area (1/m)
pAb, pA* = partial pressure of the dissolving gas in the gas bulk and at the
interface, respectively (Pa)
CAb, CA* = concentration of the dissolved gas in the liquid bulk and at the
interface, respectively (kmol/m3)
r k CA CB
If steady-state conditions are assumed in the film, then material balances may be
written for the two reactants. An analytical solution of these equations is not
possible, but numerical solutions may be computed for a range of variables.
These solutions are expressed in terms of an enhancement factor E defined by:
R E k l a C A*
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
van Krevelen-
Hoftijzer Solution:
N Ha η
E
tanh N Ha η
Ei E
where η
Ei 1
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Special case:
Special case:
Fast pseudo-first-order
Instantaneous reaction
reaction
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
E N Ha or R DA k C Bb a C A*
The actual reaction kinetics are immaterial (and virtually unmeasurable), and the
rate of reaction is limited by the rate at which both components can diffuse
toward the “extinction plane.” In this case,
E Ei and hence, R E i k l a C A*
0.0014
Ammonia data, 60°C, 10 g Cu
2
(Ha*) > 128
0.0012 Model Fits
32
0.0010 16
Oxygen rate, mol/s
8
0.0008
4
2
(Ha*) = 2
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
0.0000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time, s
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
0.0016
Sulfate data, 200°C, 10 g Cu
2
0.0014 (Ha*) > 128
Model Fits
0.0012 64
Oxygen rate, mol/s
32
0.0010
16
0.0008
8
0.0006 4
2
(Ha*) = 2
0.0004
0.0002
0.0000
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time, s
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Gas-Liquid Mixing
The mixing of a gas into a liquid depends on two distinct processes occurring in
series:
• First, the gas must get into the liquid by one of three mechanisms:
• Sparging
• Surface aeration
• Gas pumping
• Next, the gas bubbles must be broken up and dispersed throughout the
liquid volume. This is the operation which requires the high shear.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
vs
φ
vt
where:
vs = superficial velocity of gas flow in the tank (m/s)
vt = terminal rise velocity of the bubbles (m/s)
d b2 g ( ρ ρ g )
vt
18 μ
where
db = bubble diameter (m)
ρg = gas density (kg/m3)
The gas-liquid interfacial area is given directly by the gas holdup as follows:
6φ
a
db
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
N0 D T
1/ 4
A B
(σ g / ρ ) D
where:
N0 = the critical impeller speed (s–1)
σ = surface tension (N/m)
A, B = impeller-specific constants
Sparging Power
The power imparted by the sparged gas on the fluid in a tank can be determined
by writing a mechanical energy balance (Bernoulli’s equation) for the gas
between location 1 (just above the sparger orifices) and location 2 (at the liquid
surface):
v 22 v12 p2
dp
g ( z 2 z1 ) W Lf 0
2 p1 ρ g
where
z = height (m)
p = pressure (Pa)
W = specific work (J/kg)
Lf = specific friction loss (J/kg)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Sparging Power
Ignoring friction losses, neglecting the gas velocity at the liquid surface, defining
the gas density in terms of the ideal gas law, and multiplying by the gas mass
flow rate gives the sparging power as follows:
v12 RT p2
Psp m g W m g g ( z 2 z1 ) ln
2 M g p1
where
Psp = sparging power (W)
m g = gas mass flow rate (kg/s)
R = universal gas constant (8314.3 J/kmol/K)
T = temperature (K)
Mg = gas molecular weight (kg/kmol)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
where
V = fluid volume (m3)
Qg = gas volume rate (m3/s)
W = turbine blade width (m)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Estimate the ratio of gassed to ungassed power for a Rushton turbine in the first
chamber of a pressure oxidation autoclave operating at 220°C and 3200 kPa, with
a working volume of 30 m3 and a design pure oxygen flow rate of 6.7 t/h.
Assume in impeller diameter D = 1.35 m, a rotational speed N = 1.70 Hz, and an
impeller blade width W = D/5 = 0.27 m.
Solution. It is important to realize that the gas bubbles in this scenario will
consist primarily of water vapor. Hence, the “true” gassing rate which the
impeller sees will be a significantly larger than the gas volume flow rate
attributable solely to oxygen. The true gassing rate is calculated from the ideal
gas law and the vapor pressure of water as follows:
EXAMPLE 3 – (continued)
1/ 4 1/ 5
Pg NV gWV 2/3
0.10 2 4
P0 Q
g N D
1/ 4 1/ 5
(1.70)(30) (9.81)(0.27)(30) 2/3
0.10 2 4
0.45 45%
(0.271) (1.70) (1.35)
Hence, according to Hughmark, the power draw of the impeller will be less than
half of what we would have calculated from the Power number equation.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
α α
P β P β
kl a vs or k l a Q g
V V
where
0.1 α 0.9
0.3 β 0.6
Estimate the gas-liquid mass transfer rate constant and the gas holdup for the
pressure oxidation autoclave scenario given in Example 3. Cast the results into a
correlation in specific impeller power and superficial gas velocity assuming a
tank cross-sectional area of 13 m2. Assume a slurry density of 1100 kg/m3 and
ignore the contribution of surface aeration.
Superficial gas velocity is calculated using the gassing rate from Example 3, thus:
Qg (0.271) m
vs 0.021
S (13) s
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
-0.2
v s = 0.050
:
-0.4 :
Best fit slope = 0.668 0.015
0.010
-0.6 0.005
log kla (s )
-1
-0.8
-1.0
-1.2
-1.4
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
log P /V (W/m3)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
-0.2
1500
log kla (s )
-1
-0.8 1000
-1.0 500
-1.2
-1.4
-2.4 -2.2 -2.0 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2
log v s (m/s)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
-1.3
v s = 0.050
-1.5
:
:
Slope = 0.4
0.025
0.020
-1.7
0.015
0.010
-1.9
log
0.005
-2.1
-2.3
-2.5
2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8
log P /V (W/m3)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
-1.3
P /V = 5000
-1.5
:
:
Slope = 0.5
2000
-1.7 1500
1000
500
-1.9
log
-2.1
-2.3
-2.5
-2.4 -2.2 -2.0 -1.8 -1.6 -1.4 -1.2
log v s (m/s)
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
EXAMPLE 4 – (continued)
The correlation which best describes the mass transfer rate constant is:
0.668
P
k l a 0.00356 v s0.273
V
and the correlation which best describes gas holdup is:
0.4
P 0.5
φ 0.00488 v s
V
According to van’t Riet (1979), in non-electrolyte solutions the kl a correlation
exponents are α = 0.4 and β = 0.5, while in electrolyte solutions they are α = 0.7
and β = 0.2. Hence, the value of these exponents seems to depend mostly upon
whether or not the solution contains ions.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
kl a decreases with
increasing slurry viscosity
due to the presence of
solids
Surface Aeration
Wu (1995) studied surface aeration with a single disk turbine. He found that for
sparging alone in the absence of surface aeration (power in kW):
0.67
P
(k l a ) sp. a. 1.06 v s0.56
V
while, for surface aeration in the absence of sparging, and with the impeller
placed very close to the liquid surface:
0.65
P
(k l a) su. a. 0.0634
V
which leads to the interesting result:
(k l a ) sp. a.
16.7 v s0.56 > 1 when vs > 0.006 m/s (not that large)
( k l a ) su. a.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
The Effect of
Impeller Depth
Results of Wu et al.
kl a increases
dramatically as
impeller breaks
through the surface
Effect less
significant as
sparging rate is
increased
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Gas-Pumping Agitators
Another way to introduce gas into a fluid medium is to pump it in with the
impeller itself. Unlike surface aerators, gas-pumping agitators are well
submerged in the fluid medium.
In either case, the key to gas pumping is to overcome the potential energy barrier
represented by gas buoyancy.
David G. Dixon Mixing and Mass Transfer in Hydrometallurgy
Gas-Pumping Agitators
Bernoulli's equation predicts the critical impeller tip speed which signifies the
onset of gas-pumping:
2 gh
ND
η
where:
h = impeller submersion depth
η = impeller gas-pumping efficiency
At steady state, the rate of gas-liquid mass transfer must be equal to the rate of
leaching:
r11 k l a C O* 2 C Ob 2 r1 2 4 rFeS2
r1 2 4 rFeS2
rO 2 (aq) r11 0 Hence C b
O2 C *
O2
15 15 k l a
The actual rate of pyrite oxidation depends on temperature, particle size, and
dissolved oxygen concentration to the ½-power.