MAGNETISM

• History of Magnetism • Sources of Magnetism

• Bar Magnets • Spin & Orbital Dipole
Moments
• Magnetic Dipoles
• Permanent Magnets
• Magnetic Fields
• Earth’s Magnetic Field
• Magnetic Forces on
Moving Charges and Wires • Magnetic Flux
• Electric Motors • Induced Emf and Current
• Current Loops and • Generators
Electromagnets
• Crossed Fields
• Solenoids
 History of Magnetism
• The first known magnets were naturally occurring lodestones, a type
of iron ore called magnetite (Fe3O4). People of ancient Greece and
China discovered that a lodestone would always align itself in a
longitudinal direction if it was allowed to rotate freely. This property
of lodestones allowed for the creation of compasses two thousand
years ago, which was the first known use of the magnet.
• In 1263 Pierre de Maricourt mapped the magnetic field of a lodestone
with a compass. He discovered that a magnet had two magnetic poles
North and South poles.
• In the 1600's William Gilbert, physician of Queen Elizabeth I,
concluded that Earth itself is a giant magnet.
• In 1820 the Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered an
electric current flowing through a wire can cause a compass needle to
deflect, showing that magnetism and electricity were related.
 History (cont.)
• In 1830 Michael Faraday (British) and Joseph Henry (American)
independently discovered that a changing magnetic field produced a current

in a coil of wire. Faraday, who was perhaps the greatest experimentalist of

all time, came up with the idea of electric and magnetic “fields.” He also
invented the dynamo (a generator), made major contributions to chemistry,
and invented one of the first electric motors
• In the 19th century James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist and one of
the great theoreticians of all times, mathematically unified the electric and
magnetic forces. He also proposed that light was electromagnetic radiation.
• In the late 19th century Pierre Curie discovered that magnets loose their
magnetism above a certain temperature that later became known as the
Curie point.
• In the 1900's scientists discover superconductivity. Superconductors are
materials that have a zero resistance to a current flowing through them
when they are a very low temperature. They also exclude magnetic field
 Magnetic Dipoles
Recall that an electric dipole consists
of two equal but opposite charges - +
separated by some distance, such _
as in
a polar molecule. Every magnet is a
magnetic dipole. A bar magnet is a
simple example. Note how the E field Electric dipole and E field
due an electric dipole is just like the
magnetic field (B field) of a bar
magnet. Field lines emanate from the
+ or N pole and reenter the - or S
pole. Although they look the same,
they are different kinds of fields. E S N
fields affect any charge in the
vicinity, but a B field only affects
moving charges. As with charges,
opposite poles attract and like poles Magnetic dipole and B field
 Magnetic Monopole Don’t Exist

We have studied electric fields to due isolated + or - charges, but as

far as we know, magnetic monopole do not exist, meaning it is
impossible to isolate a N or S pole. The bar magnet on the left is
surrounded by iron filings, which orient themselves according to the
magnetic field they are in. When we try to separate the two poles by
breaking the magnet, we only succeed in producing two distinct
dipoles (pic on right). Bar magnet demo
 Magnetic Fields
You have seen that electric fields and be uniform, nonuniform and
symmetric, or nonuniform and asymmetric. The same is true for
magnetic fields. (Later we’ll see how to produce uniform
magnetic fields with a current flowing through a coil called a
solenoid.) Regardless of symmetry or complexity, the SI unit for
any E field is the N/C, since by definition an electric field is force
per unit charge. Because there are no magnetic monopoles, there
is no analogous definition for B. However, regardless of
symmetry or complexity, there is only one SI unit for a B field. It
is called a tesla and its symbol is T. The coming slides will show
how to write a tesla in terms of other SI units. The magnetic field
vector is always tangent to the magnetic field. Unlike E fields, all
magnetic field lines that come from the N pole must land on the S
pole--no field lines go to or come from infinity.
 Sources of Magnetism
We have seen charges in motion (as in a current) produce magnetic
fields. This is one source of magnetism.
Another source is the electron itself. Electrons behave as if they were
tiny magnets. Quantum mechanics is required to explain fully the
magnetic properties of electrons, but it is helpful to relate these
properties back to the motion of charges. Every electron in an atom
behaves as a magnet in two ways, each having two magnetic dipole
moments:
Spin magnetic dipole moment - due to the “rotation” of an electron.
Orbital magnetic dipole moment - due to the “revolution” of an
electron about the nucleus.
Note: Electrons are not actually little balls that rotate and revolve like
planets, but imagining them this way is useful when explaining
magnetism without quantum mechanics.
 Spin Magnetic Dipole Moment
Just as electrons have the intrinsic properties of mass and charge, they have an intrinsic
property called spin. This means that electrons, by their very nature, possess these three
attributes. You’re already comfortable with the notions of charge and mass. To
understand spin it will be helpful to think of an electron as a rotating sphere or planet.
However, this is no more than a helpful visual tool.
Imagine an electron as a soccer ball smeared with negative charge rotating about an axis.
By the right hand rule, the angular momentum of the ball due to its rotation points down.
But since its charge is negative, the spinning ball is like a little current loop flowing in
the direction opposite its rotation, and the ball becomes an electromagnet with the N
pole up. For an electron we would say its spin magnetic dipole moment vector, μs,
points up. Because of its spin, an electron is like a little bar magnet.

μs
- -- -
N

-- I S
- -
 Orbital Magnetic Dipole Moment
Imagine now a planet that not only rotates but also revolves around its star. If the
planet had a net charge, its rotation would give it a spin magnetic dipole moment,
and its revolution would give it an orbital magnetic dipole moment. Charge in
motion once again produces a magnetic field.
Since an electron’s charge is negative, its orbit is like a current loop in the opposite
direction. By the right hand rule, the angular momentum vector in the pic below
would point down and the orbital magnetic dipole moment, μorb, points up. An
orbiting electron behaves like a tiny electromagnet with its N pole in the direction of
μorb. Remember, though, that in reality electrons are not like little planets. In
quantum mechanics, instead of circular orbits we speak of electrons behaving like
waves and we can only talk of their positions in terms of
probabilities.

μorb N

S
- I
 Materials and Magnetism
• Each electron in an atom has two magnetic dipole moments associated with it,
one for spin, and one for orbit. Each is a vector.
• These two dipole moments combine vectorially for each electron.
• The resultant vectors from each electron then combine for the whole atom,
often canceling each other out.
• For most materials the net dipole moment for each atom is about zero.
• For some materials each atom has a nonzero dipole moment, but because the
atoms have all different orientations, the material as a whole remains
nonmagnetic.
• Ferromagnetic materials, like iron, are comprised of atoms that each have net
dipole moment. Furthermore, all the atoms have the same alignment, at least
within very tiny regions called domains. The domains can have different
orientations, though, leaving the iron nonmagnetic except when placed in an
external field.
• Permanent magnets are produced when the domains in a ferromagnetic
material are aligned.
 Permanent Magnets
Each atom in a ferromagnetic material Lets melt the iron, and
like iron is like a little magnet, and bring in a magnetic field. Temp
these magnets are all aligned in tiny
regions called domains. At high temps Now, when we let the solid
Melting
these domains can align in the cool down, and take away
point
presence of an external field (like the external magnetic field,
Earth’s) leaving a permanent magnet. we have formed a perma-
This happens at the Mid-Atlantic nent magnet in the same
Ridge beneath the Atlantic Ocean. direction as external field.

Domains

Bar Magnet
Earth’s Magnetic
Earth’s field looks similar to what we’d
Field expect if there were a giant bar magnet
imbedded inside it, but the dipole axis of this
11.5°
magnet is offset from the axis of rotation by
11.5°. Also, the south pole of this magnet is
near the geographic north pole, NG. A
compass points in the direction of the
NM NG magnetic north pole, NM, around which the
field lines reenter Earth’s surface. (Magnetic
north is actually the south pole of Earth’s
S magnetic dipole.) NM, which is currently
located in Greenland, drifts about over the
centuries. About every million years Earth’s
field reverses entirely, as we know from the
N orientations of magnetic fields near the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge. The field is likely due to the
μorb motion of charged particles in the fluid outer
core, and it protects us from an otherwise
 Magnetic Fields: Overview

Although the magnetic properties of electrons must ultimately be

explained with quantum mechanics, we can think of magnetism
arising whenever we have charge in motion. This motion can be that
of an electron (either spinning or orbiting) or it can be in the form of
a current. Remember: moving charges produce magnetic fields, and
external magnetic fields exert a magnetic force on moving charges
(at least if the charge has a component of its velocity perpendicular
to the field).
 Magnetic Flux
Magnetic flux, informally speaking, is a measure of the amount of magnetic field
lines going through an area. If the field is uniform, flux is given by:

ФB = B · A = B A cos
The area vector in the dot product is a vector that points A
perpendicular to the surface and has a magnitude equal 
to the area of the surface.
Imagine you’re trying to orient a window so as to allow
the maximum amount of light to pass through it. To do
this you would, of course, align A with the light rays.
With  = 0, cos = 1, and the number of light rays
passing through the window (the flux) is a max. Note:
with the window oriented parallel to the rays,  = 90°
and ФB = 0 (no light enters the window).
The SI unit for magnetic flux is the tesla-square meter:
T m2. This is also know as a weber (Wb).
 Changing Magnetic Flux
• A changing magnetic flux in a wire loop induces an electric current.
• The induced current is always in a direction that opposes the change

in flux.
These facts were discovered by Michael Faraday and represent a key connection
between electricity and magnetism. One simple example of this is a magnet
moving in and out of a wire loop. As a bar magnet approaches a wire loop along a
line perpendicular to the loop, more and more field lines poke through the loop and
the flux increases. To oppose this change in flux a current is induced in the
direction shown. Note that the induced
current produces its own
magnetic field pointing to the
right. Also note that there is no
battery in the loop! This current
N S will only exist when the flux
inside the loop changes. When
the magnet is withdrawn the flux
v decreases and current is induced
I
in the other direction. There is no
Java script current when the magnet is still.
 Induced emf’s and Currents
The current induced in a loop come not from a battery but from a changing
magnetic flux. We can think of the loop containing an imaginary battery that
gets turned on whenever flux in the loop changes. The strength of this
battery is called the emf (electromotive force); it’s symbol is a script E: ,
and it’s measured in volts. The induced current is given by:

I =  /R where R is the internal resistance in the loop.

 itself depends on the rate at which the flux inside the loop is changing. If
the flux is changing at a constant rate,

This Faraday’s law. The negative sign here

 = - ФB / t indicates the emf opposes the change in flux.

The greater the change in flux the greater, the greater the induced emf,
and greater the induced current.