RADIATION

PRODUCTION
AND CHARACTERISTICS
CONCEPT OF
THE ATOM
 ANCIENT GREEKS
 “Atomos” means indivisible
 Four substances: earth, water,
air, & fire
 Four Essences: wet, dry, hot, &
cold
 DALTON ATOM

JOHN DALTON

“HOOK-AND-EYE AFFAIR”
 THOMSON ATOM
JOHN JOSEPH THOMSON

“PLUM PUDDING”

 Plum: electrons
 Pudding: a shapeless
mass of positive
electrification
 RUTHERFORD ATOM

ERNEST RUTHERFORD

“NUCLEAR MODEL”

“ALPHA SCATTERING
EXPERIMENT”
 BOHR ATOM

NEILS BOHR

“MINIATURE SOLAR SYSTEM”

 2 MAIN PARTS OF THE ATOM

NUCLEUS

 Central core of an atom

 Contains nucleon
 Contains nearly all mass of the
atom
 Positively charged
 2 MAIN PARTS OF THE ATOM

ORBITAL SHELL
 Composed of electrons
 7 shells: K, L, M, N, O, P, Q
 Each shell represents different
electron binding energy (Eb)
 3 FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ELECTRON PROTON NEUTRON

LOCATION Orbital shell Nucleus Nucleus

MASS Lightest - Heaviest

Negative Positive Neutral

CHARGED

-1 +1 0

DISCOVERED BY John Joseph Thomson James Chadwick Eugene Goldstein

Atomic structure
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Smallest particle of an element
ATOM Neutral charged
Fundamental building blocks of
matter
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE

MOLECULES
Group of atoms bonded
together
Smallest particle of a
compound
 CHEMICAL BONDING
COVALENT BOND IONIC BOND
The chemical union The bonding that
between atoms formed occurs because of an
by sharing one or more electrostatic force
pairs of electrons between ions
Example: H2O Example: NaCl
 H: Z=1  Na: Z=11
 O: Z=8  Cl: Z=17
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ELEMENT COMPOUND
A pure chemical
Composed of two or
substance more elements
chemically linked
Distinguish by its Z
(number of protons)
Examples:
 H2O
Examples:  BaSO4
 W 74
TAKENOTE!!!
 Ba 56
112 identified
92 naturally occurring
20 artificially produced
PERIODIC TABLE
 ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ATOMIC MASS ATOMIC MASS
UNIT NUMBER (A)
 The mass of a neutral atom of an  Used when precession is not
element required
 Expresses the mass of the atom  # of protons + # of neutrons in the
nucleus
 Symbol: amu
 Symbol: A
 1 amu = ½ the mass of carbon-12
atom  Formula: protons + neutrons
 ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT
 NUMBER OF ELECTRONS (outermost shell of an atom)
= GROUP in the periodic table

= determines the VALENCE of an atom

 NUMBER OF OUTERMOST ELECTRON SHELL

= PERIOD in the periodic table
 ELECTRON ARRANGEMENT

MAXIMUM ELECTRONS PER SHELL

 Formula: 2n2
 n = shell number (principal quantum number)
OCTET RULE
 TWO FORCES ACTING ON AN
ELECTRON
Centripetal Force
 Center-seeking force
 The force that keeps an electron
in orbit

Centrifugal Force
 Flying-out-from-the-center force
 The force that causes an electron
to travel straight and leave the
atom
 TWO FORCES ACTING ON
NUCLEUS

NUCLEON BINDING
REPULSIVE FORCE FORCE

Holds an atomic
Occurs between the nucleus together due
protons to neutron
 ELECTRON BINDING ENERGY
 The strength of attachment of an electron to the nucleus
 Symbol: Eb
 The energy required to completely remove an electron from an atom
 The closer to the nucleus, the higher the Eb
 Inner shell: higher/larger Eb
 Outer shell: lower/smaller Eb
BASIC FORCES
IN NATURE
 FUNDAMENTAL FORCES

MEANING ATTRACT/REPEL EXPRESSED BY

Acts in a MASS
GRAVITATIONAL through an associated
Attract only Newton’s Law
FORCE GRAVITATIONAL
FIELD

Acts in a CHARGE
ELECTROSTATIC
through an associated Attract & repel Coulomb’s Law
FORCE
ELECTRIC FIELD

Acts in a POLE
MAGNETIC through an associated
Attract & repel Gauss’s Law
FORCE MAGNETIC FIELD
PHYSICAL FORCES IN NATURE
TYPE DESCRIPTION

Gravitational Binds earth to the sun

Weak Involved in beta decay

Binds electrons and protons in

Electrostatic
atoms

Binds protons and neutrons in

Strong
the nucleus
 FIELDS

The interactions among different

FIELD energies, forces or masses

It governs the interaction of

Gravitational Field different MASSES

It governs the interactions of

Electric Field electrostatic CHARGES

It governs the interactions of

Magnetic Field magnetic POLES
ATOMIC NOMENCLATURE
 Number protons plus
number of neutrons
 Symbol: A
ATOMIC MASS
NUMBER  
 ATOMIC NOMENCLATURE
CHEMICAL SYMBOLS
 The alphabetic abbreviations
of an element

ATOMIC NUMBER
 Number of Protons
 Symbol: Z
RADIOACTIVITY
RADIOACTIVE
ATOM
 RADIOACTIVE ATOM
RADIOACTIVE
DECAY/DISINTEGRATION
Process by which the nucleus
RADIOACTIVITY spontaneously emits particles &
energy and transformed itself into
Rate of decay/disintegration of another type of atom to reach
radioactive material stability

Expressed in: Curie

SI unit: Becquerel Parent: the original nuclei
Daughter: the resulting nuclei
 STABLE NUCLEI
 Stable low atomic mass (A) nuclides
 # of protons = # of neutrons
 Examples:
C-12 has 6 protons & 6 neutrons

 Stable high atomic mass (A) nuclides

 # of neutrons > # of protons
 Example:
W-74 has 74 protons & 110 neutrons
 UNSTABLE NUCLEI
 Unstable nuclei are called radionuclides
 Very heavy radionuclides (Z>82) tend to be unstable
 They undergo nuclear transformation
 Total energy, mass number, electric charge are conserved
 UNSTABLE NUCLEI
GROUND STATE EXCITED STATE
Lowest energy state of Isomeric states
the nucleus Highest energy state of
The most stable the nucleus
arrangement of Always unstable
nucleons Transform into lower
energy level, emitting
 gamma radiation
 internal conversion electron
 UNSTABLE NUCLEI
GROUND STATE EXCITED STATE
Lowest energy state of Have long lifetimes
the nucleus (metastable)
 10-9 second
The most stable  e.g. 99mTc
arrangement of
nucleons
 NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS
ISOTOPES ISOBAR
Atomic nuclei that Atomic nuclei that
have have
 same atomic number (Z)  Different atomic number (Z)
 Different atomic mass number  Same atomic mass number (A)
(A)  Different neutron number
 Different neutron number
Examples:
Examples:  131
I & 131Xe
 130
I & 131I
 NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS
ISOTONE ISOMER
Atomic nuclei that Atomic nuclei that
have have
 Different atomic number (Z)  Same atomic number (Z)
 Different atomic mass number  Same atomic mass number (A)
(A)  Same neutron number
 Same neutron number  Different energy state

Examples: Examples:
 130
I & 131Xe  99m Tc  99Tc + gamma ray
 NUCLEAR ARRANGEMENTS

ATOMIC NUMBER ATOMIC MASS NEUTRON

ARRANGEMENTS
(Z) NUMBER (A) NUMBER

isotoPe Same Different Different

isobAr Different Same Different

isotoNe Different Different Same

isomEr Same Same Same

MODES OF
DECAY
 ALPHA DECAY
 Radionuclides emits  Z-2
 A–4
alpha particle (heavy  N-2
particles)
 Consisting of 2p + 2n
 Nucleus of helium atom
 Results in:
 ALPHA DECAY
 Z > 82 (most common)  External source: little
risk
 Energy: 4-7 MeV
 Internal source: high risk
 Least penetrating (ingested, inhaled,
 <0.1 mm (tissue) injected)
 Absorbed by: paper
 BETA MINUS DECAY
 Negatron emission  A = constant/same
 N-1
 Occurs in: neutron-rich  Emission of negatron
 Emission of antineutrino
(proton-deficient) nuclei
 1n🡪1p
 Results in:
 Z+1
 BETA MINUS DECAY
 Radionuclides produced  Reactor-produced
in nuclear reactor radionuclides
 by adding neutron to  Decay by a beta minus process

stable nuclei
 Example:
 Co+neutron 🡪 60Co
59
 BETA PLUS DECAY
 Positron emission A = constant/same
 N+1
 Occurs in: neutron-  Emission of positron
deficient (proton-rich)  Emission of neutrino
nuclei
 1p🡪1n
 Results in:
 Z-1
 BETA PLUS DECAY
Radionuclides produced Cyclotron-produced
in cyclotron radionuclides
by adding charged-  Decay by a beta plus process
(15O) or electron capture (123I)
particle to stable nuclei
Example: 68
Ga  68Zinc + 0β+
201Hg+deuteron  201Tl 31 30
+1
 ELECTRON CAPTURE
 K-capture  Results in:
 Z–1
 Occurs in: neutron-  A = constant/same
deficient (protons-rich)  N+1
nuclei
 1p🡪1n
 By capturing electron
(most likely in the K-
shell)
 ELECTRON CAPTURE
 Emission of characteristic x-  67
Ga, 111In, 123I,201Tl & 57Co
rays
 Emission of Auger (o-zhay)
electron

 Auger process: the process

of removing electron by a
characteristic x-rays within
an atom
 Important e- capture
radionuclides:
 INTERNAL ISOMERIC
CONVERSION TRANSITION
Inverse photoelectric effect A decay involving
Gamma radiation from the emission of gamma
nucleus ejects an electron radiation
on its way out Example:
Results in:
Tc  99Tc + γ
99m
 Emission of characteristic
x-ray
 Emission of Auger
electron
 DAUGHTER NUCLEUS
VALUE
Decay Mode Mass No. Atomic No. Neutron No. Comments

Emits gamma rays;

Isomeric transition A Z N Metastable if half-life is >10
9
s

Emits negatrons &

Beta minus A Z+1 N–1
antineutrinos

Beta plus A Z–1 N+1 Emits positrons & neutrinos

Emits neutrinos &

Electron capture A Z–1 N+1
characteristic x-rays

Dominant decay mode for Z

Alpha decay A–4 Z–2 N–2
> 82
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTIC OF
RADIOACTIVE ATOM
 DECAY CONSTANT (λ)
 The rate of decay of radionuclides
 Formula: λ = 0.693/T1/2
 λ = decay constant
 T1/2= half life

 Example: if λ = 25% per second

Time Elapsed Original amount Amount decaying Remaining amount

1s 100 mCi 25 mCi 75 mCi
2s 75 mCi 19 mCi 56 mCi
3s 56 mCi 14 mCi 42 mCi
 RADIOACTIVE/PHYSICAL
HALF-LIFE
 The time required for a quantity of radioactivity to be
reduced to one-half its original value
 Every radioactive material has its own unique half life value
 All radioactivity never disappears
 Quantity decreases but never reaches zero
 Formula: T1/2 = 0.693/λ
 RADIOACTIVE DECAY
FORMULA

REMAINING ACTIVITY = ORIGINAL ACTIVITY (0.5)n

n = number of half life

 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1

On Monday at 6 am in the morning,

100 mCi of 99Tc is present. How much
will remain on the same day at 12
noon?
 SOLUTION
Given:
 99Tc = 6 hrs (half life)
 Original activity = 100 mCi
 n = 1 (99Tc undergone one half life)
Formula:
 Remaining Activity = Original Activity (0.5)n
Solution:
 Remaining Activity = 100 mCi (0.5)1
 Remaining Activity = 50 mCi of 99Tc
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

How many half-lives are required

before a quantity of radioactive
material has decayed to less than 1%
of its original value?
 RADIOACTIVITY RADIOACTIVITY
HALF LIFE REMAINING REMAINING
(in %age) (in fraction )

0 100% 1

1 50% 1/2

2 25% 1/4

3 12.5% 1/8

4 6.25% 1/16

5 3.125% 1/32

6 1.56% 1/64

7 0.78% 1/128
SAMPLE ELEMENTS AND THEIR
HALF LIFE
ELEMENT HALF LIFE
99
Tc 6 hours
131
I 8 days
123
I 13 hours
223
Ra 11 days
226
Ra 1600 years
14
C 5730 years
192
Ir 74 days
60
Co 5.26 years
137
Cs 30 years
90
Sr 28 years
99
Mo 66 hours
197
Au 2.7 days
 BIOLOGICAL HALF-LIFE (Tb)
 The time required for the body to eliminate one-half of the
dose of any substances by biological processes (perspiration,
urine, feces, exhalation)
 Most radiopharmaceuticals are also cleared from organs by
various physiologic processes
 EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE (Te)
 Encompasses both T1/2 and Tb

 Must always shorter than T1/2 & Tb

THE RELATIONSHIP

1/Te= 1/T1/2 + 1/Tb

 EFFECTIVE HALF-LIFE (Te)
 Example: If the radionuclide has a physical half life of 6
hours and a biologic half life of 3 hours, what is the
effective half life?
 Given: Te = ?; T1/2 = 6; Tb = 3
 Formula: 1/Te= 1/T1/2 + 1/Tb
 Solution:
 1/Te= 1/6+1/3
 1/Te= (1+2)/6
 1/Te= 3/6
 Te= 6/3
 Te= 2 hours
TYPES OF IONIZING
RADIATION
 Particulate Radiation
 Alpha Particle
 An alpha particle is a helium nucleus that contains two
protons and two neutrons
 Beta Particle
 A beta particle is an electron emitted from the nucleus of a
radioactive atom.
 Electromagnetic Radiation
 X-rays and gamma rays are often called photons. Photons
have no mass and no charge. They travel at the speed of light
(c = 3 × 108 m/s) and are considered energy disturbances in
space.
ELECTROMAGNETIC
ENERGY
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
ENERGY

The type of energy in x-rays, radio

waves, microwaves & visible light
 PHOTON
The smallest quantity of any type of
electromagnetic energy
It may be pictured as quantum
Waveform: sinusoidal fashion
Quantum: a small bundle of energy
 PROPERTIES OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC
ENERGY

Frequency, Wavelength, Velocity

& Amplitude
 FREQUENCY
 SI Unit: hertz (Hz)
 The rate of rise & fall  1 Hz: 1 cycle/second
 Symbol: f
 FREQUENCY
Inversely proportional
to the wavelength
Equal to the number
of crests or valleys
that pass the point of
an observer per unit
time
 WAVELENGTH
Distance from one
valley to another
Distance from one crest
to another Distance from one point
on the sine wave to the
next corresponding point
WAVELENGTH
Unit: Lambda (λ)
Inversely proportional
to the frequency
 VELOCITY
c: speed of light
Constant SI Unit: 3 x 108 m/s
Constant British Unit: 186,000 mi/s

TAKENOTE!!!
 AMPLITUDE
It is not related to
wavelength or frequency
The width of a
waveform
 JAMES CLERK MAXWELL
He showed that visible light has
both electric & magnetic properties
 THREE WAVE PARAMETERS
Velocity, Frequency & Wavelength
Need to describe electromagnetic
energy
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
EQUATION

These are used for both sound &

electromagnetic energy
 MAX PLANCK

He synthesized our understanding

of electromagnetic radiation
 PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY
X-rays are created with the speed
of light (c)

X-rays exist with velocity or they

do not exist at all
 PLANCK’S QUANTUM EQUATION
 FORMULA: E = hf
 EQUIVALENT EQUATION
 f = E/h
 E = hc/λ
 PLANCK’S CONSTANT
 Symbol: h
 Constant:
 4.15 x 10-15 Ev-s
 6.63 x 10-34 J-s
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
RELATIONSHIP TRIANGLE
ELECTROMAGNETIC
SPECTRUM
 ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

HIGHEST SHORTEST
GAMMA RAYS HIGHEST ENERGY
FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH

X-RAYS

UV RAYS

VISIBLE LIGHT

INFRARED LIGHT

MICROWAVE

LOWEST LONGEST
RF LOWEST ENERGY
FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH
 3 REGIONS IMPORTANT TO
RADIOLOGIC SCIENCE

VISIBLE LIGHT
REGION X-RAY REGION

viewing condition of a Fundamental to

radiographic & producing a high
fluoroscopic images quality radiograph
are critical to diagnosis
 3 REGIONS IMPORTANT TO
RADIOLOGIC SCIENCE

RADIOFREQUENCY
OTHERS
REGION
with the introduction UV light, infrared
of MRI, become more light, & microwave
important in medical radiation
imaging
WAVE-PARTICLE DUALITY
 Visible-light photons tend to behave more like waves than
particles. The opposite is true of x-ray photons, which
behave more like particles than waves. In fact, both types of
photons exhibit both types of behavior— a phenomenon
known as the wave-particle duality of electromagnetic
energy.
 Photons interact with matter most easily when the matter is
approximately the same size as the photon wavelength.
 X-rays behave as though they are particles.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h1tflE-
L2Dc
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF
MATTER AND ENERGY
MATTER
 Anything that occupies space & has mass/weight
 Can be transformed from one size, shape & form to another

ICE  WATER  VAPOR

 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF
MATTER AND ENERGY
MASS WEIGHT
 The quantity of matter  The force exerted on a body
(constant) under the influence of gravity
 Described by its energy  Measured in: Newton (N) or
equivalence pounds (lb)
 Measured in: kilogram (kg)
TAKENOTE!!!
The primary distinguishing
characteristic of matter
 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF
MATTER AND ENERGY
ENERGY
 The ability to do work
 Can be transformed from one form of energy to another
 Cannot be created or destroyed
 SI unit: Joule
 In Radiology: electron volt (eV)

 
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
MATTER

It states that matter may be

transformed from one form to another
but cannot be created or destroyed
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
ENERGY
It states that energy may be
transformed from one form to another
but cannot be created or destroyed

Total amount of energy is constant

 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPT OF
MATTER AND ENERGY
THEORY OF RELATIVITY  Mass-energy equivalence
equation: E=mc2
 Albert Einstein
 States that mass and energy
are interchangeable
 7 KINDS OF ENERGY
Energy at rest

POTENTIAL ENERGY
 7 KINDS OF ENERGY
Energy of motion

KINETIC ENERGY
 7 KINDS OF ENERGY
Energy released by a
chemical reaction

CHEMICAL ENERGY
 7 KINDS OF ENERGY
Movement of electron through
an electric potential difference
ELECTRICAL ENERGY (V)
 7 KINDS OF ENERGY
Energy in motion at the
molecular level

THERMAL/HEAT
ENERGY
 7 KINDS OF ENERGY
Energy contained within the
nucleus of an atom

NUCLEAR ENERGY
 7 KINDS OF ENERGY
Energy used in an
x-rays, radio waves, microwaves
visible light
ELECTROMAGNETIC
ENERGY
 ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL (V) CURRENT (I)
Measured in: Ampere
Measured in: volt
Ampere is one
Volt is potential coulomb of electric
energy per unit charge flowing per
charge second
1 V = 1 J/C 1 A = 1 C/s
 ELECTRIFICATION
Transfer or movement of electron from one object to
another object
Created by:
FRICTION: when one object is rubbed against another
CONTACT: when two object touch, permitting electrons
to move from one to the other
INDUCTION: the process of electrical fields acting on
another without contact
Most important method (used in the operation of electronic devices)
INDUCTION MOTOR
 ELECTRIFICATION
ELECTRIC
ELECTRIFIED GROUND
The object that
If object has too few behaves as a reservoir
or too many electrons for stray electric
charges
 COULOMB’S LAW
The electrostatic force is k = constant of proportionality
directly proportional to the
product of the electrostatic (9x109
for coulomb & meter)
charges & inversely
Qa & Qb = charges (Coulomb)
proportional to the square of the
distance between them d = distance (m2)

F = k(QaQb/d2)
F = electrostatic force (N)
 ELECTRIC FIELD
The lines of force that Negative charge: points
causes charged particles toward
to move from one pole
to another
Positive charge: points
outward
 ELECTROSTATIC LAWS
Like charges repel

REPULSION-
ATTRACTION
Unlike charges attract
 ELECTROSTATIC LAWS
Uncharged particles do Electric field radiate
not have electric field toward a negative
charge
Electric field radiate
out from positive
charge
ELECTROSTATIC LAWS
 Charges uniformly
distributed at the surface

DISTRIBUTION
 ELECTROSTATIC LAWS
 Sharpest curvature of a
surface

LAW OF
CONCENTRATION
 ELECTROSTATIC LAWS
INVERSE SQUARE MOVEMENT
LAW
The force between two Only negative charges
charges move along the solid
Directly proportional to conductors
the product of their  Protons are tightly bound inside
magnitudes the nucleus

Inversely proportional
to the square of distance
between them
 ELECTRODYNAMICS

The study of electric charges in

motion
 ELECTRIC CURRENT

Movement electrons along the

wire
 TWO TYPES OF CURRENT
DIRECT CURRENT ALTERNATING CURRENT
 Electrons that flow in only one  Electrons that flow alternately
direction in opposite direction
 Waveform: straight line  Waveform: sinusoidal
 FOUR STATES OF MATTER
1.) CONDUCTOR
 Any substance through which electrons flow easily
 Characteristics:
 Variable resistance
 Obeys Ohm’s law
 Requires voltage
 Examples: copper, aluminum & water
 FOUR STATES OF MATTER
2.) INSULATOR
 Any material that does not allow electron flow
 Characteristics:
 Does not permit electron flow
 Extremely high resistance
 Necessary with high voltage
 Examples: glass, rubber & clay
 FOUR STATES OF MATTER
3.) SEMICONDUCTOR
 A material that some conditions behaves as an insulator & as
a conductor
 Characteristics:
 Can be conductive
 Can be resistive
 Basis for computers
 Examples: silicon & germanium
 FOUR STATES OF MATTER
4.) SUPERCONDUCTOR
 Any material that allows electrons to flow without resistance
 Characteristics:
 No resistance to electron flow
 No electric potential required
 Must be very cold
 Examples: niobium & titanium
 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
 A pathway that permits electrons to move in a complete
circle from their source through the various components &
back again

TAKENOTE!!!

More complex  the greater the resistance  decrease electric

current
 OHM’S LAW
 The voltage across the total circuit or any portion of the
circuit is equal to the current times the resistance
 Formulas:
 V = IR (for voltage)
 R = V/I (for resistance)
 I = V/R (for current)
2 BASIC TYPES OF ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT
All circuit elements are
connected in a line along the
SERIES CIRCUIT same conductor
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
A series circuit contains three
resistive elements that have values
of 8, 12 and 15 Ω. If the voltage is
110 V, what is the total resistance,
the current through each resistor,
and the voltage across each resistor?
 SOLUTION
 GIVEN:
R1=8 Ω; R2=12; R3=15
Vt=110 volts
 RULES for SERIES:
Rt = R1 + R2+ R3
It = I1 = I2 = I3
Vt = V1 + V2+ V3
 SOLUTION
 What is the total resistance?
Given: = R1=8; R2=12; R3=15
Rules: Rt = R1 + R2+ R3
Rt = 8 + 12 + 15
Rt = 35 ohms
 SOLUTION
 What is the current through each resistor?
Formula: It = Vt/Rt
Rules: It = I1 = I2 = I3
 Given: Rt = 35 ohms; Vt = 110 volts
It = 110/35
It = 3.14 A
 SOLUTION
 What is the voltage across each resistor?
Formula: V = IR
Rules: Vt = V1 + V2 + V3
 Given: Rt = 35 ohms; It=I1=I2=I3=3.14 A
 SOLUTION
Computing for V1:  V1 = 47.1 volts
 R1= 8 ohms ; I1=3.14 A
 V1 = (3.14)(8)
 V1 = 25.12 volts Computing for Vt:
 Vt = V1 + V2+ V3
 Vt = 25.12 + 37.68 + 47.1
Computing for V2:  Vt = 109.9 V
 R2= 12 ohms ; I2=3.14 A  Vt = 110 V
 V2 = (3.14)(12)
 V2 = 37.68 volts
2 BASIC TYPES OF ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT
Elements are connected at their
ends rather than lying in a line
PARALLEL CIRCUIT along a conductor
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
 A parallel circuit contains three resistive elements that have
values of 8, 12 and 15 Ω. If the voltage is 110 V, what is the
total resistance, the current through each resistor, and the
voltage across each resistor?
 SOLUTION
 What is the total resistance
Rules: 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
Given: R1=8 Ω; R2=12 Ω; R3=15 Ω
 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
 1/Rt = 1/8 + 1/12 + 1/15
 1/Rt = 0.125 + 0.083 + 0.067
 1/Rt = 0.275
 Rt = 1/0.275
 Rt = 3.63 ohms
 SOLUTION

 What is the current through each resistor?

Rules: It = I1 + I2 + I3
Formula: I = V/R
Given: V=110 V; R1=8 Ω; R2=12 Ω; R3=15 Ω
 SOLUTION
 Computing for I1:  I3 = 7.33 A
 R1= 8; Vt=110 volts
 I1 = 110/8
 I1 = 13.75 A  Computing for It:
 I t = I 1 + I2 + I 3
 It = 13.75 + 9.17 + 7.33
 Computing for I2:  It = 30.25 A
 R2= 12; Vt =110 volts
 I2 = 110/12
 I2 = 9.17 A
 SOLUTION
 What is the voltage across each resistor?
Rules: Vt = V1 = V2 = V3
Formula: Vt = ItRt
Given: It =30.25 A; Rt=3.57 ohms
Vt = ItRt
Vt = (30.25)(3.63)
 Vt = 109.8 V or 110 V
 ELECTRIC POWER

 It is measured in watts (W)

 1 W: 1 A (current) x 1 V (voltage)
 Formulas:
 P = IV
 P = I2R (for power losses)
 SAMPLE QUESTIONS
 An x-ray imaging system that draws a current of 80 A is
supplied with 220 V. What is the power consumed?

 Calculate the power loss in a circuit where the current

flowing is 100 amperes and the total line resistance is 2
ohms.
 MAGNETISM
 Fundamental property of forms of matter
 It has no smallest unit

MAGNETS
 Any material that produce magnetic field
 Has north and south pole

BIPOLAR/DIPOLAR
 Magnets that have two poles
MAGNETISM
Any charged particle in
motion creates a magnetic
field
MAGNETISM
The lines of a magnetic field
are always closed loops
 MAGNETISM
MAGNETIC MAGNETIC
PERMEABILITY SUSCEPTIBILITY

The ability of a material to attract the The degree to which a material can
lines of magnetic field intensity be magnetized

Iron has high magnetic permeability Iron has high magnetic susceptibility

Wood has low magnetic Wood has low magnetic

permeability susceptibility
 TYPES OF MAGNETS
 e.g. Lodestone
NATURAL MAGNET
 A magnet that gets its
magnetism from the Earth
 TYPES OF MAGNETS
ARTIFICIAL-  e.g. compass
PERMANENT MAGNET
 A magnet whose magnetism
is induced artificially
 TYPES OF MAGNETS
 A coil or wire wrapped
around an iron core that
ELECTROMAGNETS intensifies the magnetic field
 FOUR MAGNETIC STATES OF
MATTER
1.) NONMAGNETIC – unaffected
 Wood & glass
2.) DIAMAGNETIC – weakly repelled
 Water & plastic
3.) PARAMAGNETIC – weakly attracted
 Gadolinium
4.) FERROMAGNETIC – strongly magnetized
 Iron, nickel & cobalt
 MAGNETIC LAWS
 Unlike magnetic poles
attract
 Like magnetic poles repel
 MAGNETIC LAWS

 Imaginary lines of magnetic

field enter the south pole
 Imaginary lines of magnetic
field leave the north pole
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
 An electric current is induced in a circuit if some part of that
circuit is in a changing magnetic field
 Faraday and Oersted Experiment
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION
HANS OERSTED
MICHAEL FARADAY
He observed the current in
a changing magnetic field He demonstrated that
electricity can be used to
He described the first law generate magnetic fields
of electromagnetic
induction
FARADAY’S LAW
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
MICHAEL FARADAY’S  Ammeter: measures current
EXPERIMENT
 Changing magnetic field
induces current
 Magnetic field generates
electricity
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
HANS OERSTED  Electricity generates
EXPERIMENT magnetic field
 Moving or spinning charges
induces magnetic field
 ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES
ELECTRIC MOTOR  Commutator Ring:
switches the direction of
 Electric current produces current through the loop
mechanical motion
ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES
 Mechanical motion
produces electric current

ELECTRIC GENERATOR
 ELECTROMAGNETIC DEVICES
 Applicable only on AC
TRANSFORMER
 It changes the intensity of
alternating voltage &
current
 STEP UP
TRANSFORMER
 Is < Ip
 Turns ratio greater than 1
 Ns > Np
 Vs > Vp
 STEP DOWN
TRANSFORMER
 Turns ratio less than 1  Is > Ip
 Ns < Np
 Vs < Vp
 INDUCTION MOTOR
 A type of motor used with x-  Rotor
rays tubes  Stator
 It powers the rotating anode
of an x-ray tube
 2 parts:
 ROTOR

Rotating part of an Located inside the glass

electromagnetic induction enveloper
motor that
 STATOR
Stationary coil windings Located in the protective
(electromagnet) housing but outside the glass
envelope
 TRANSFORMER LAW
Voltage and number of turns are
directly proportional
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
There are 125 turns on the primary
side of a transformer and 90,000
turns on the secondary side. If 110 V
AC is supplied to the primary
winding, what is the voltage induced
in the secondary winding?
 SAMPLE PROBLEM

The secondary side of the

transformer has 300,000 turns; the
primary side has 600 turns. What is
the turns ratio?
 TRANSFORMER LAW ON CURRENT
 Current is inversely related to the number of turns and voltage
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
The primary side of a filament
transformer has 1000 turns while the
secondary side has 500 turns. What
is the filament current if the current
through the primary winding is 2 A?
 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
CLOSED-CORE Reduced energy losses
TRANSFORMER caused by eddy current
A square core of
ferromagnetic materials
built up of laminated
layers of iron
 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
SHELL-TYPE  Confines more of the magnet
TRANSFORMER field lines
 Has two-closed core  More efficient than closed-
core
 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
AUTOTRANSFORMER  Located in the operating console
 controls the kVp
 Consists of one winding and
one core
 Step up transformer
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF
AUTOTRANSFORMER
 LINE COMPENSATOR

It measures the voltage provided

to the x-ray imaging system and
adjusts that voltage to precisely
220 V
 METERS
kVp METER mA METER
It monitors the x-ray tube current
It reads voltage
It is connected at the center of the
(not kVp) secondary winding of the high-
Located at the output terminals of voltage step-up transformer
the autotransformer Rationale: ensures electrical safety

PREREADING kVp METER

It allows the voltage to be
monitored before an exposure
 AUTOTRANSFORMER LAW
 Same as transformer law
 Voltage is directly proportional to number of turns
 SAMPLE QUESTION
An autotransformer connected to a 440
V supply contains 4000 turns, all of
which are enclosed by a primary
connections. If 2300 turns are enclosed
by secondary connection, what voltage
is supplied to the high-voltage
generator?
 TYPES OF POWER LOSSES
RESISTANCE HYSTERESIS LOSS

Defined as electric An additional resistance

current in the copper caused by alternate
wire experiences reversal of the magnetic
resistance field caused by
alternating current

Results in heat
generation
TYPES OF POWER LOSSES
EDDY CURRENT
A current that opposes the
magnetic field that
induced it, creating a loss
of transformer efficiency

Closed-core transformer
reduces eddy current
VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION

It ensures that electrons flow from

cathode to anode only
 RECTIFICATION

The process of converting alternating

current (AC) to direct current (DC)
 RECTIFIER

An electronic device that allows

current flow in only one direction
 
 DIODE
An electronic device that contains
two electrodes
 VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 The voltage is not allowed to swing negatively during the
negative half of its cycle
 Diodes: 0, 1 or 2
 60 pulses/second
 Disadvantages:
 It wastes half the supply of power
 It requires twice the exposure time
HALFWAVE RECTIFICATION
 VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
SELF RECTIFICATION
 A reference to the fact that electrons cannot flow from anode
to cathode in an x-ray tube
 X-ray tube serves as the vacuum tube rectifier
Same waveform as half-wave
60 pulses/second
 VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION
 The negative half-cycle corresponding to the inverse voltage
is reverse
 Diodes: 4
 120 pulses/second
 Advantage:
 Exposure time reduced in half
 TAKENOTE!!!

SINGLE PHASE GENERATORS

ARE USED IN DENTAL
RADIOGRAPHY!!!
 VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
THREE-PHASE POWER
 The voltage impressed across the x-ray tube is nearly
constant
 6 pulses/1/60 second (360 pulse/second)
12 pulses/1/60 second (720 pulse/second)
 Advantage:
 Voltage never drops to zero during exposure
 Disadvantages:
 Its size & cost
THREE-PHASE
 VOLTAGE RECTIFICATION
HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATOR
 It produces a nearly constant potential voltage waveform
500-25,000 pulse/sec
 Advantages:
 Much smaller
 Less costly
 More efficient
 Improves image quality at lower patient radiation dose
 It uses INVERTER CIRCUITS
HIGH FREQUENCY
 VOLTAGE RIPPLE

It a means of characterizing
voltage waveforms
 WAVEFORM RIPPLE VOLTAGE

SINGLE-PHASE
Half wave 100% Varies from zero to
Full wave 100% maximum

THREE-PHASE
6-pulse 14% Never falls below
86% of maximum
value
12-pulse 4%
Never falls below
96% of maximum
value

HIGH FREQUENCY <1% Never falls below

99% of maximum
value
 HEAT UNITS
SINGLE-PHASE
 HU = kVp x mA x s

THREE-PHASE 6 PULSE
 HU = 1.35 x kVp x mA x s

THREE-PHASE 12 PULSE
 HU = 1.41 x kVp x mA x s

HIGH FREQUENCY
 HU = 1.45 x kVp x mA x s
 SAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate the heat units generated for
the following exposures.
Single-phase, rectified unit: 250 mA, 0.7
seconds, and 200 kVp?
In three-phase 6-pulse?
In high frequency generator?
 POWER RATING

Transformer and high-voltage generator usually are identified by

the power rating in KILOWATTS (kW)
 POWER RATING
 Formula: for three-phase & high frequency

mA x kVp
1000
 Formula: for single-phase

(0.7)
mA x kVp
1000
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2
 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3
When a system with low-voltage
ripple is energized at 100 kVp,
100 ms, the maximum possible
tube current is 800 mA. What is
the power rating?
 SOLUTION
GIVEN: mA = 800; kVp = 100
FORMULA:
Power Rating = (mA x kVp)/1000
SOLUTION:
Power Rating = (800 x 100)/1000
Power Rating = (80,000 W)/1000
Power Rating = 80 kW
INTERACTION OF
ELECTRON WITH
MATTER
 RADIATION
The transfer of energy through IRRADIATED
space
Matter that intercepts and
absorbs radiation
EXPOSED/
 RADIATION
IONIZATION
The removal of electron
from the atom

Occurs when incident x-

ray energy is greater
than electron binding
energy
 RADIATION
EXCITATION
Addition of energy to a
system achieved by raising
the energy of electrons
with the use of x-rays

Occurs when incident x-ray

energy less than electron
binding energy
 IONIZING RADIATION
Any type of radiation Characteristic x-rays
capable of removing an 
EXAMPLES: x-rays,
orbital electron from the
gamma rays & UV light
atom with which it
interacts
RESULTS IN:
Ion pair
 TYPES OF IONIZING
RADIATION
PARTICULATE – with mass and charge
 Alpha radiation
 Beta radiation

ELECTROMAGNETIC – no mass, no charge (photons) &

travel in the speed of light
 Gamma rays
 X-rays
 LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER (LET)
 A measure of the rate at which energy is transferred from
ionizing radiation to soft tissue
 Another method of expressing radiation quality
 Expressed in: keV/μm
 LINEAR ENERGY TRANSFER (LET)
 Diagnostic X-rays: 3 Increases the ability
keV/μm to produce biologic
 As LET Increases: damage
 Increases the probability of
interaction with the target
molecule
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LET,
RBE & OER
LOW LET LOW RBE HIGH OER
HIGH LET HIGH RBE LOW OER
 SPECIFIC IONIZATION

THE NUMBER OF ION PAIRS

FORMED PER UNIT PATH
LENGTH
 RANGE/PATH LENGTH

MAXIMUM DISTANCE TRAVERSE BY IONIZING

RADIATION BY INTERACTION WITH THE MEDIUM

MEASURED IN:
MICROMETER
 SPECIFIC
RANGE LET
IONIZATION
ALPHA
LOW HIGH HIGH
PARTICLE
BETA
HIGH HIGH LOW
PARTICLE
X-RAYS HIGH HIGH LOW
GAMMA
HIGH HIGH LOW
RAYS
 ELECTRON
INTERACTION
MECHANISM
 CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION
 It is emitted when an outer-shell electron fills an inner-shell
void
 An interaction with the INNER-SHELL of a target atom
 Energy: very specific

TAKENOTE!!!

Only the K-characteristic x-rays of tungsten are useful for

imaging!
CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION
 BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION
 Slowed down radiation
 It is produced when a projectile electron is slowed by the
electric field of a target atom nucleus
 An interaction with the NUCLEAR FIELD of a target
atom
 It results from BRAKING of projectile electrons by the
nucleus
 Energy: all or none
INTERACTION
OF RADIATION
WITH MATTER
 X-RAY QUANTITY
 X-ray exposure, X-ray intensity, Radiation exposure
 The number of x-rays in the useful beam
 Units: R, mR & mGya

Roentgen
 A measure of the number of ion pairs produced in air by a quantity of x-
rays
 SI Unit: mGya
 Exposure Rate: mR/s, mR/min or mR/mAs
 X-RAY QUANTITY & mAs
X-ray quantity is proportional to the
mAs
Formula: I1/I2 = mAs1/mAs2
mAs: mA x s = mC/s x s = mC
1 C: 6.25 x 1018 electrons
 X-RAY QUANTITY &
kVp
 X-ray quantity is proportional to kVp2
 Formula: I1/I2 = (kVp1/kVp2)2
 40% Increased in kVp: doubling the intensity
 15% Increased in kVp: reduction of ½ in mAs
Disadvantage: reduced image contrast
 kVp Rule
15% kVp Rule 5% kVp Rule

Increased 15% kVp Increased 5% kVp

mAs is decreased by ½ mAs is decreased by 30%

Decreased 15% kVp Decreased 5% kVp

mAs is doubled mAs is increased by 30%
X-RAY QUANTITY & DISTANCE
X-ray quantity is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance from the source
For relationship of distance and x-ray
intensity
Inverse Square Law: I1/I2 = (SID2/SID1)2
For relationship of mAs and distance
Square Law: mAs1/mAs2 = (SID1/SID2)2
 FILTRATION
Beam hardening
Purpose: to reduce/absorb the number of
low-energy/low frequency/low wavelength
x-rays
Advantages: increased beam quality &
reduces patient dose
Disadvantage: reduced image contrast
 X-RAY QUALITY
The penetrability of an x-ray beam
It is measured in HVL
PENETRABILITY: the ability of x-rays to pass
through tissue
 HIGH QUALITY X-RAYS: X-ray with high
penetrability
LOW QUALITY X-RAYS: X-ray with low
penetrability
 X-RAY QUALITY & kVp
X-ray quality is directly proportional to
kVp
Increasing the kVp increases the quality
of an x-ray beam
X-RAY QUALITY & FILTRATION
 X-ray quality is directly proportional to filtration
 Increasing the filtration increases the quality of an x-ray
beam but decreases the x-ray quantity
 Filter Materials: aluminum (Z=13), copper (Z=29), tin
(Z=50), gadolinium (Z=64) & holmium (Z=67)
 HALF VALUE LAYER
The thickness of absorbing material necessary to reduce the x-
ray intensity to half of its original value
A characteristic of the useful beam
DIAGNOSTIC X-RAY RANGE: 3-5 Al or 3-6 cm of soft
tissue

TAKENOTE!!!
The best method for specifying x-ray quality
1 TVL = 3.3 HVL
ATTENUATION
The reduction in x-
ray intensity that
results from
absorption &
scattering
 ATTENUATION
The total reduction in the number of x-rays
remaining in an x-ray beam after penetration
through a given thickness of tissue
TAKENOTE!!!
X-ray beam quality can be identified by voltage
or filtration, but HVL is most appropriate!
INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT &
ABSORBING MATERIAL

TRANSPARENCY
Not at all
(transmission)
e.g. window glass
INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT &
ABSORBING MATERIAL

TRANSLUCENC
Y
Partially
(attenuation)
e.g. frosted glass
INTERACTION BETWEEN LIGHT &
ABSORBING MATERIAL

OPACITY
Completely
(black glass)
e.g. black glass
 INTERACTION BETWEEN
X-RAYS & STRUCTURE

RADIOLUCENT RADIOPAQUE

The structures that The structures that

transmit x-rays absorb x-rays
e.g. Lung tissue e.g. bones
 DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION
 Different degrees of absorption in different tissues
 Results: image contrast & formation of the x-ray image
 TAKENOTE!!!
“Differential absorption increases as the kVp is reduced”

Radiographic Image

It results from approximately 0.5% of the x-rays emitted by the

x-ray tube
THREE TYPES OF X-RAYS IMPORTANT
IN MAKING A RADIOGRAPH
Those scattered by Compton interaction
Doesn’t provide diagnostic information
Result: image noise
Those absorbed photoelectrically
Provides diagnostic information
Appearance: radiopaque
Those transmitted by the patient without interaction
Provides diagnostic information
Appearance: radiolucent
 LINEAR ATTENUATION
COEFFICIENT (cm-1)
A quantitative measurement of attenuation per
centimeter of absorber
It tells how much attenuation we can expect
from a certain thickness of tissue
 FIVE WAYS OF X-RAY INTERACTION
WITH MATTER
LOW-ENERGY X-RAY
 It interacts with whole atom
 

MODERATE-ENERGY X-RAY
 It interacts with electrons
 

HIGH-ENERGY X-RAY
 It interacts with nuclei
FIVE WAYS OF X-RAY INTERACTION
WITH MATTER
 COHERENT
 COMPTON
 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
 PAIR PRODUCTION
 PHOTODISINTEGRATION
 COHERENT SCATTERING
 J.J. Thompson
 Classical or Thompson Scattering
 Occur at below 10 keV x-rays
 The incident x-ray interacts with a target atom, causing it to become
excited
 Results:
 Change in x-ray direction
 No change in its energy
 Scattered X-ray λ = Incident X-ray λ
 Scattered X-ray energy = Incident X-ray Energy

 Little importance to diagnostic radiology

COHERENT SCATTERING
 COMPTON EFFECT
 The incident x-ray interacts with the outer-shell electron &
ejects it from the atom
 Compton/Secondary Electron: the ejected electron
 Results:
 Change in x-ray direction
 reduction of its energy
 Scattered X-ray λ > Incident X-ray λ
Scatter X-ray energy < incident x-ray energy
COMPTON EFFECT
 FEATURES OF COMPTON
SCATTERING
With outer-shell electron
MOST LIKELY TO OCCUR
With loosely bound electrons

Increased penetration through tissue

without interaction

AS X-RAY ENERGY INCREASES Increase Compton Scattering relative to

photoelectric effect

Reduced Compton scattering

AS ATOMIC NUMBER OF
No effect in Compton scattering
ABSORBER INCREASES

AS MASS DENSITY OF ABSORBER Proportional increase in Compton

INCREASES scattering
 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
 The incident x-ray interacts with the inner-shell electron
 Result:
 Incident x-ray disappears

Three Products
 Characteristic x-rays
 Photoelectron (ejected electron)
 Positive atom (deficient of one electron)
 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
GOOD EFFECTS
 No scattered radiation
 Produce good quality radiographic image

BAD EFFECT
 Increase radiation exposure to patient
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
 FEATURES OF PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
With inner-shell electron
MOST LIKELY TO OCCUR
With tightly bound electrons

Increased penetration through tissue

without interaction

AS X-RAY ENERGY INCREASES Less photoelectric effect relative to

Compton effect

Reduced absolute photoelectric effect

AS ATOMIC NUMBER OF Increase proportionately with the cube of

ABSORBER INCREASES atomic number (Z3)

AS MASS DENSITY OF ABSORBER Proportional increase in photoelectric

INCREASES effect
 FEATURES OF PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
With inner-shell electron
MOST LIKELY TO OCCUR
With tightly bound electrons

Increased penetration through tissue

without interaction

AS X-RAY ENERGY INCREASES Less photoelectric effect relative to

Compton effect

Reduced absolute photoelectric effect

AS ATOMIC NUMBER OF Increase proportionately with the cube of

ABSORBER INCREASES atomic number (Z3)

AS MASS DENSITY OF ABSORBER Proportional increase in photoelectric

INCREASES effect
COMPTON & PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
 PAIR PRODUCTION
 Occur at 1.02 MeV x-rays
 The incident x-ray interacts with the nuclear force field
 Results:
 X-ray disappears
 Two electrons with opposite charge appear (positron &
electron)

 Does not occur during x-ray imaging

 Useful in PET
PAIR PRODUCTION
 PHOTODISINTEGRATION
 Occur at 10 MeV x-rays
 The incident x-ray interacts directly into the nucleus
 Results:
 X-ray is absorbed by the nucleus
 Nucleon/nuclear fragment is emitted
 Does not occur in diagnostic radiology
PHOTODISINTEGRATION
 INTERACTIO
OCCUR
INTERACTION ENERGY N RESULTS
AT
WITH
Change in x-ray
direction;
COHERENT LOW <10 keV Whole atom
No change in x-ray
energy

Change in x-ray
direction;
Outer-shell Reduced in x-ray
COMPTON
Electron energy;
Compton electron
MODERATE 30-150 keV emitted

Inner-shell X-ray disappear;

PHOTOELECTRIC
Electron Photoelectron emitted

X-ray disappear;
Two electrons with
PAIR PRODUCTION 1.02 MeV Nucleus
opposite charge
appear
HIGH
X-ray absorbed in the
nucleus;
PHOTODISINTEGRATION 10 MeV Nucleus
Nuclear fragment
emitted
 Exposure timer
 Capacitor discharge generator
 Falling load generator
 X-ray circuit
 The xray tube
 X-ray emission spectrum
 Factors affecting x-ray emission spectrum
 Exponential attenuation
 Types of filtration
End