FOSSIL FUELS

FORMATION, COMPOSITION AND RANKING

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The Formation of Fuels
• Solar energy is converted to
chemical energy through photo-
synthesis in plants
• Energy produced by burning wood or
fossil fuels
• Fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas

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These fuels were dug out of the ground. They had taken millions
of years to make and so are called FOSSIL FUELS and are
NON-RENEWABLE.
Made from the remains of plants which
COAL died millions of years ago

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Coal is a solid fossil fuel that is formed in several
stages as the buried remains of land plants that
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lived 300-400 million years ago.
 OIL and NATURAL GAS (Methane)

Made from the decayed remains of sea creatures which

died millions of years ago

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Solid Fuels
 Coal classification
• Anthracite: hard and geologically the oldest
• Bituminous
• Lignite: soft coal and the youngest
• Further classification: semi- anthracite, semi-
bituminous, and sub-bituminous

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Solid Fuels
 Physical properties
• Heating or calorific value (GCV)
• Moisture content
• Volatile matter
• Ash

 Chemical properties
• Chemical constituents: carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, sulphur

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 Solid Fuels (Physical properties)
 Heating or calorific value
• The typical GVCs for various coals are:

• Heating or Calorific Value is the amount

of heat released when a unit mass of
fuel is burned (Btu/lb. or cal/g)
• Calorific value has implications for
pollution measurements such as SO2
whose emissions are calculated on a lb
per million Btu basis
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Solid Fuels (Physical properties)
 Moisture content
• % of moisture in fuel (0.5 – 10%)
• Reduces heating value of fuel
• Weight loss from heated and then cooled powdered
raw coal

 Volatile matter
• Methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, CO, other
• Typically 25-35%
• Easy ignition with high volatile matter
• Weight loss from heated then cooled crushed coal
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 Solid Fuels (Physical properties)
 Ash
• Impurity that will not burn (5-40%)
• Important for design of furnace
• Ash = residue after combustion

 Fixed carbon
• Fixed carbon = 100 – (moisture + volatile matter +
ash)
• Carbon + hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, nitrogen
residues
• Heat generator during combustion 10
Solid Fuels (Physical properties)
 Proximate analysis of coal
• Determines only fixed carbon, volatile matter,
moisture and ash
• Useful to find out heating value (GCV)
• Simple analysis equipment

 Ultimate analysis of coal

• Determines all coal component elements: carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, other
• Useful for furnace design (e.g flame temperature,
flue duct design)
• Laboratory analysis 11
Solid Fuels (Chemical Properties)
 Storage, Handling & Preparation
• Storage to minimize carpet loss and loss due
to spontaneous combustion
• Reduce carpet loss: a) a hard surface b)
standard concrete/brick storage bays
• Coal preparation before use is important for
good combustion

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 Peat

Beginning of Fossilization

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 Peat
Peat is the first stage in the formation of coal.
It is regarded as the borderline between vegetation
(biomass) and a fossil fuel.
It is a brown, fibrous mass of partially decayed plant
material accumulated in situ under water-logged
conditions.
Composition depends on type, depth of deposit and age.
The oldest peats are about 1 million years old.
Peat is believed to have formed from wood. When wood is
subjected to bacterial processes under nearly stagnant
water, the cellulose, lignin and protein are decomposed.
Residuals combine to form dopplerite.

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 Peat (Continued)
Contains 70-90% dopplerite and 5-30%
resins and waxes.
Wet peat contains 95% moisture.
Reduces to 90% when cut.
Reduces to less than 25% when air dried.
Ash is about 3%.
Calorific value varies between 16,700 and
20,900 kJ/kg.
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 Peat (Continued)
Combustion Characteristics
1. Its low calorific value and high moisture
content reduces furnace temperature and
efficiency of combustion.
2. Its low bulk density (320 kg/m3) reduces
capacity of furnace and increases storage and
handling capacity due to its high volume.
3. Its friable nature (can be easily crumbled)
causes appreciable loss in handling.
4. It may be used as a powder or may be
briquetted without any binder.

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Lignite

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 Lignite
Forms the first phase of fossilization of
vegetable matter.
It is an immature form of coal.
Believed to be between 10 and 40 million
years old.
It is intermediate in composition between
peat and bituminous coal.
Most immature lignites are chemically
similar to most mature peats.
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 Composition of typical lignites
Carbon: 64.5-78.5%
Oxygen+nitrogen+sulfur 16.5-30%
Water (as mined) 20-75%
Water (dried) 12-20%
Ash 3-30%
Volatile matter 40-50%
Sulfur 1-12%
Calorific value (dry) 20,900-29,300 kJ/kg
Used raw or dried in furnaces
Pulverized and used in mills
May be used in briquetted forms as well

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 Coal

A Fully Fossilized Fuel

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Coal – A Heterogeneous Mineral
Consists principally of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen, with lesser amounts of sulfur and
nitrogen.
Other constituents are the ash-forming inorganic
compounds distributed throughout the coal.
Coal originated through accumulation of wood and
other biomass that was later covered,
compacted and transformed into rock over a
period of millions of years.

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 Coal Classification
There are a number ways to classify coals.
One way is to Rank the coal. It indicates the degree or
extent of maturation.
It is a qualitative measure of carbon content.
Thus lignites and sub-bituminous are low rank coals
While bituminous and anthracite are high rank coals.
Rank is not synonymous with grade which implies quality.
Low rank coals may not be suitable for some applications
as the higher ranked ones
Although they may be superior to them in other applications

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 Rank of Coal
With increasing Rank, the following characteristics are
noticed:
1. Age of coal is increased. This increases with increase
in depth of deposit.
2. A progressive loss of oxygen, hydrogen and in some
cases sulfur, with a corresponding increase in carbon.
3. A progressive decrease in equilibrium moisture
content.
4. A progressive loss of volatile matter.
5. Generally, a progressive increase in calorific value.
6. In some cases, a progressive increase of ash content.

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 Coal Ranks
• There are 4 general ranks for coals:
– Lignite low rank
– Subbituminous
– Bituminous
– Anthracite High rank

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 Typical oxygen, water and ash
content in solid fuels
Fuel Oxygen Moisture Ash
(dry, ash- (ash-free) (dry) %
free) % %
Wood 45 15-50 0.-1.0

Peat 35 90 0.1-10

Lignite 25 30 >5

Bituminous coal 5 5 >5

Anthracite coal 2 4 >5

Refuse-derived fuel 40 24 10-15 26

 Coal Combustion
When heated to progressively higher temperatures
in inert atmosphere (very little oxygen present),
coal decomposes.
Evolves water, tar and gas, and leaves a solid
residue whose composition and properties
depend on heat treatment temperature.
Temperature range in which volatilization proceeds
very rapidly is 350-500oC.
But thermal decomposition begins at a much lower
temperature.
Can be divided into 3 stages.

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 Coke (Continued)
Two commercial processes are available:
1. Low temperature carbonization at about 600oC and
2. High temperature carbonization at temperatures above
900oC.
Coal is heated in retorts. Evolves gases like carbon
monoxide, methane, unsaturated hydrocarbons, and
hydrogen.
Tar forms up to about 500-600oC.
Coals for converting to coke must have carbon content
from 83 to 90%.
Coke is used in iron and steel industries (metallurgical
coke), foundries, and as a domestic (smokeless) fuel.
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Gaseous Fuels
 Advantages of gaseous fuels
• Least amount of handling
• Simplest burners systems
• Burner systems require least maintenance
• Environmental benefits: lowest GHG and other
emissions

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Gaseous Fuels
 Classification of gaseous fuels
(A) Fuels naturally found in nature
- Natural gas
- Methane from coal mines
(B) Fuel gases made from solid fuel
- Gases derived from coal
- Gases derived from waste and biomass
- From other industrial processes
(C) Gases made from petroleum
- Liquefied Petroleum gas (LPG)
- Refinery gases
- Gases from oil gasification
(D) Gases from some fermentation 30
 Gaseous Fuels
 Calorific value
• Fuel should be compared based on the net
calorific value (NCV), especially natural gas

Typical physical and chemical properties of various gaseous fuels

Fuel Relative Higher Heating Air/Fuel Flame Flame
Gas Density Value kCal/Nm3 ratio m3/m3 Temp oC speed m/s
Natural 0.6 9350 10 1954 0.290
Gas

Propane 1.52 22200 25 1967 0.460

Butane 1.96 28500 32 1973 0.870

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Gaseous Fuels
 Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
• Propane, butane and unsaturates,
lighter C2 and heavier C5 fractions
• Hydrocarbons are gaseous at atmospheric
pressure but can be condensed to liquid state
• LPG vapour is denser than air: leaking gases
can flow long distances from the source

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Gaseous Fuels
 Natural gas
• Methane: 95%
• Remaing 5%: ethane, propane, butane,
pentane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, other gases
• High calorific value fuel
• Does not require storage facilities
• No sulphur
• Mixes readily with air without producing smoke or
soot
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Liquid Fuels
 Usage
• Used extensively in industrial applications

 Examples
• Furnace oil
• Light diesel oil
• Petrol
• Kerosine
• Ethanol
• LSHS (low sulphur heavy stock)
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Liquid Fuels
 Density
• Ratio of the fuel’s mass to its volume at 15 oC,
• kg/m3
• Useful for determining fuel quantity and quality

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Liquid Fuels
 Specific gravity
• Ratio of weight of oil volume to weight of same
water volume at a given temperature
• Specific gravity of water is 1
• Hydrometer used to measure

Table 1. Specific gravity of various fuel oils

Fuel oil LDO Furnace oil LSHS (Low Sulphur

type (Light Diesel Oil) Heavy Stock)

Specific 0.85-0.87 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98

Gravity
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Liquid Fuels
 Viscosity
• Measure of fuel’s internal resistance to flow
• Most important characteristic for storage and use
• Decreases as temperature increases

 Flash point
• Lowest temperature at which a fuel can be
heated so that the vapour gives off flashes when an
open flame is passes over it
• Flash point of furnace oil: 66oC
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Liquid Fuels
 Pour point
• Lowest temperature at which fuel will flow
• Indication of temperature at which fuel can be
pumped

 Specific heat
• kCal needed to raise temperature of 1 kg oil by
1oC (kcal/kgoC)
• Indicates how much steam/electricity it takes to
heat oil to a desired temperature
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Liquid Fuels
 Calorific value
• Heat or energy produced
• Gross calorific value (GCV): vapour is fully
condensed
• Net calorific value (NCV): water is not fully
condensed

Fuel Oil Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg)

Kerosene 11,100
Diesel Oil 10,800
L.D.O 10,700
Furnace Oil 10,500
LSHS 10,600 39
Liquid Fuels
 Sulphur content
• Depends on source of crude oil and less on the
refining process
• Furnace oil: 2-4 % sulphur
• Sulphuric acid causes corrosion

 Ash content
• Inorganic material in fuel
• Typically 0.03 - 0.07%
• Corrosion of burner tips and damage to
materials /equipments at high temperatures 40
Liquid Fuels
 Carbon residue
• Tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid
residue on a hot surface
• Residual oil: >1% carbon residue

 Water content
• Normally low in furnace oil supplied (<1% at
refinery)
• Free or emulsified form
• Can damage furnace surface and impact flame
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Liquid Fuels
 Storage of fuels
• Store in cylindrical tanks above or below the ground
• Recommended storage: >10 days of normal
consumption
• Cleaning at regular intervals

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 Liquid Fuels
Typical specifications of fuel oils

Properties Fuel Oils

Furnace Oil L.S.H.S L.D.O
Density (Approx. 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98 0.85-0.87
g/cc at 150C)
Flash Point (0C) 66 93 66
Pour Point (0C) 20 72 18
G.C.V. (Kcal/kg) 10500 10600 10700
Sediment, % Wt. 0.25 0.25 0.1
Max.
Sulphur Total, % < 4.0 < 0.5 < 1.8
Wt. Max.
Water Content, % 1.0 1.0 0.25
Vol. Max.
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Ash % Wt. Max. 0.1 0.1 0.02
Comparing Fuels
Fuel Oil Coal Natural
Gas
Carbon 84 41.11 74
Hydrogen 12 2.76 25

Sulphur 3 0.41 -
Oxygen 1 9.89 Trace
Nitrogen Trace 1.22 0.75
Ash Trace 38.63 -
Water Trace 5.98 -
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