Instrumentation and Measurements BE-56 A&B Fall 2020: Instructor: LT Dr. Col Humayun Zubair Khan

Instrumentation and Measurements
BE-56 A&B
Fall 2020
Instructor: Lt Dr. Col Humayun Zubair Khan

Week-2
Basics of Measurement
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Instrumentation by Uday A. Bakhsi

Introduction
 Introduction
 Standard of Units
 Functional Elements of an Instruments
 Performance Characteristics
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
 Instrument Classification
 Methods of Measurement
 Types of Errors
 Loading Effects
Functional Elements of an Instrument
 Functional elements of an instruments are divide into

three parts
 Primary sensing element
 Data conditioning element
 Data presentation element
Primary sensing element (PSE)
 An element of an instrument which makes,

first, the contact with quantity to be
measured is called primary sensing element
(PSE)
 The first detection of measurand is done by
PSE
 Generally transducers follows PSE, which
converts measurand into corresponding
electrical signals.
Variable conversion element
 When output from PSE is not suitable for

actual measurement system, variable
conversion element is required e.g. Analog to
Digital convertors
 The original information about measurand
should be retained as it is while performing
conversion
 Some instruments need variable conversion
element and some do not
Variable manipulation element
 Manipulation involves change in the numerical

value of the signal
 Low Signal – Amplifiers
 High Signal - Attenuators
 Noise – Clipper/ clamping
 Variable conversion + variable manipulation +
signal conditioning = Data Conditioning or
Signal Conditioning element
Data transmission element
 When elements of system are physically

separated, it is necessary to transmit the data
from one stage to other. This is done through
data transmission element
 Signal conditioning + Data transmission =
Intermediate stage of an instrument
Data presentation element
 Transmitted data may be used by the system for

monitoring, controlling or analysis purpose
 The observer should get to data in proper form. This
is done by data presentation element
 Monitoring: visual display devices
 Record & Analysis: magnetic tapes, recorders, high speed
cameras
 Control & Analysis: microprocessors, computers,
microcontrollers
 This stage is known as terminating stage
Introduction
 Introduction
 Types of Errors
 Loading Effects
Performance Characteristics
 Selecting a proper instruments for a

particular measurand needs knowledge of
the performance characteristics of an
instrument
 Two categories
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics
Introduction
 Introduction
 Types of Errors
 Loading Effects
Static Characteristics
 Set of criteria defined for the instruments,

which are used to measure the quantities
which are slowly varying with time or mostly
constant, is called static characteristics
 It includes accuracy, precision, error,
sensitivity, threshold, resolution, linearity,
zero drift, stabilityetc.
Static Characteristics: Accuracy
 It is the degree of closeness with which the

instrument reading approaches the true value
of the measurand
 It indicates true value of the measurand
 Types
 Percentage of Full Scale Reading
 Percentage of True Value
 Percentage of Scale Span
Static Characteristics: Precision
 It denotes the closeness with which

individuals measurements are departed or
distributed about average of measured
values
 It is the measure of consistency or
repeatability of measurements
 Difference b/w accuracy and precision?
 Example 1.1:
Static Characteristics: Error
 It is the algebraic difference between the

indicated value and the true value of the
measurand
 Types
 Absolute Error
 Relative Error
 Percentage Relative Error
 Error in percentage of full scale reading
 Absolute Error

𝒆= 𝑨 𝒕 − 𝑨 𝒎
 Relative Error
 Percentage relative error

 Relative Percentage Error Accuracy

 Percentage of full scale deflection

 Solution
 Absolute error =150-149 = 1
 Percentage error = 1/150*100= 0.667%
 Relative accuracy= 1-[Error/True value]
 = 1-[1/150] = .9933
 Percentage accuracy= Relative accuracy*100

 = 99.33%
 Error %full scale = [Error/Full scale reading]*100
 = [1\200]*100=0.5%
 Example: An ammeter reads 8.3 A and the

true value of the current is 8.5 A. Determine
(i) absolute error (ii) relative error (iii) relative
percentage error?
 Solution
 Absolute error=8.5-8.3=0.2
 Relative error=0.2/8.5= 0.0235/1
 Relative %error= 0.0235*100=2.35%
Static Characteristics: Sensitivity
 It is the ratio of the change in the output of

the instrument to a change in the value of
measurand
 It denotes the smallest change in the
measurand value to which the instrument
responds
 Inverse Sensitivity = Deflection Factor

 Units: mm/μA, mm/Ω, counts/volt
 Example: A particular ammeter require a change
of 2 A in its coil to a change in deflection of the
pointer by 5mm. (i)Determine its sensitivity and
(ii) deflection factor?
Solution
 Sensitivity=5mm/2A = 2.5 mm/A

 Deflection factor=1/2.5mm/A
 = 0.4 A/mm
Static Characteristics: Resolution
 The smallest measurable input change is

called resolution
Static Characteristics: Zero Drift
 It is defined as the deviation in the instrument

output with time when measurand is
constant
 Factors of drift
 Electrical field, Magnetic field, temperature
changes, changes in atomic structure, wear &
tear, corrosion etc.
 Stability is to retain instrument performance
throughout its specified operating life
Static Characteristics: Dead Space
 For a certain range of input values, there is no

change of output. This range is called dead
space
Introduction
 Introduction
 Types of Errors
 Loading Effects
Dynamic Characteristics
 When instrument is subjected to rapidly varying
inputs, then relation between input and output
become different. The behaviour of system
under such condition is called dynamic response
of system
 Energy storage elements causes dynamic
behaviour
 Transient & Steady state response
 Dynamic behaviour of instrument is determined
by applying some known and predetermined
variations of input to the sensing element
Types of inputs
 Step Input: It represents a sudden, instantaneous

change in the input
 Ramp Input: It represents a linear change in input

Types of inputs
 Parabolic Input: It represents an input signal which is proportional to the square of
time and represents acceleration
 Impulse Input: It exists only at t=0 and has zero value at any other time
 Sinusoidal Input: This represents an input which changes in accordance of the
sinusoidal function of constant amplitude
Dynamic Characteristics
 Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the
true value of a measurand changing with time
and the value indicating by the instrument.
 Fidelity: It is defined as degree to which an

instrument indicates change in the measurand
without dynamic error

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Instrumentation and Measurements

Instructor: Lt Dr. Col Humayun Zubair Khan

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Instrumentation by Uday A. Bakhsi

 Functional elements of an instruments are divide into

 An element of an instrument which makes,

 When output from PSE is not suitable for

 Manipulation involves change in the numerical

 When elements of system are physically

 Transmitted data may be used by the system for

 Selecting a proper instruments for a

 Set of criteria defined for the instruments,

 It is the degree of closeness with which the

 It denotes the closeness with which

 It is the algebraic difference between the

 Percentage relative error

 Relative Percentage Error Accuracy

 Percentage of full scale deflection

 Percentage accuracy= Relative accuracy*100

 Example: An ammeter reads 8.3 A and the

 It is the ratio of the change in the output of

 Inverse Sensitivity = Deflection Factor

 Sensitivity=5mm/2A = 2.5 mm/A

 The smallest measurable input change is

 It is defined as the deviation in the instrument

 For a certain range of input values, there is no

 Step Input: It represents a sudden, instantaneous

 Ramp Input: It represents a linear change in input

 Fidelity: It is defined as degree to which an

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