1 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING II

Chapter 3.
Traffic Volume and Loading
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
2

 Traffic Volume and loading are the major factors which

influence the standard of a road
 Traffic volume: the basic criterion used in the geometric
design
 One of the bases for functional classification of roads,
(the design parameters associated with the specific class
are used for design, for example: width, alignments, and
gradients)
 Traffic loading: the most important factor in pavement
analysis and design, and culvert and bridge structures
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 The most important traffic loading factors to be

included in the structural design of pavement design
are:
 Loading magnitude
 Loading configuration
 Number of repetitions
 Speed of loading
 Contact pressure
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Two different procedures of traffic loading are widely used in

pavement design:
 Fixed traffic: design thickness of pavements is determined

by single wheel load magnitude independent of load

repetitions.
 Any wheel configurations are converted to equivalent
single wheel load (ESWL).
 Design is performed based on the largest equivalent
single wheel load within all configurations.
 Commonly used for airport and heavy-wheel load, but
light traffic volume highways.
 Not commonly used today.
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed Vehicle: design thickness of pavement is determined by

the number of repetitions of a standard single axle load (80 kN).
 Any axle configuration is converted to equivalent single axle

load (80 kN) by multiplying the number of repetitions of

each configuration by its equivalent axle load factor (EALF).
 The design traffic load is the number of repetitions of all

types of axle loads in the design life of the road in terms of

equivalent single axle loads (ESAL).
 Because of the great variety of axle loads and traffic, it is the

most commonly used method for design today.

 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed traffic: involves converting multiple wheel loads to an

equivalent single-wheel load (ESWL).
 An equivalent single-wheel load is defined as the load on a single tyre
that will cause an equal magnitude of stress, strain, deflection or
distress at a given location within a specific pavement system to that
resulting from a multiple-wheel load.
 This method has been used most frequently for airport pavements or
for highway pavements with heavy wheel loads but light traffic
volume. Usually the heaviest wheel load anticipated is used for design
purposes.
 The different criteria used for converting multiple-wheel loads to a
single-wheel load include: equal vertical stress, equal vertical
deflection, equal contact pressure, and equal tensile strain out of
which the first three are explained here.
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed traffic: Equal Vertical Stress ESWL

 The method of equal vertical subgrade stress is based upon
approximations of stress distribution concepts in an elastic
half-space devised by Boyd and Foster.

No stress overlap if
pavement thickness is less
than d/2
Complete stress overlap if
pavement thickness is greater
than 2Sd

0.301og (2z/d)
log(ESWL)  log Pd 
log(4S d /d)

Example 1
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed traffic: Equal Vertical Stress ESWL

 The vertical stress factor  /q presented in
z
Chapter Two can also be used to determine
the theoretical ESWL. For the same vertical
subgrade stress, z,  z   z 
q s    q d  
 qs   qd 

Ps  z / q d

 and for the same contact  z /the
Pd radius, q s contact
pressure is proportional to wheel load, or
 in which Ps is the single-wheel load, which is the ESWL to be
determined, Pd is the load on each of the duals, and qs and qd are the
contact pressures under a single wheel and dual wheels, respectively.
Example 2
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed traffic : Equal Deflection ESWL

 In this method, the pavement system is considered as a
homogeneous half-space and the vertical deflections at a depth equal
to the thickness of the pavement can be obtained from Boussinesq
solutions.
 A single-wheel load that has the same contact radius as one of the
dual wheels and results in a maximum deflection equal to that
caused by the dual wheels is the ESWL.
 Using the vertical deflection factor F presented in Chapter Two, the
deflections due to single and dual wheel loading are expressed as:
qs a qd a
ws  Fs wd  Fd
E E
Fd
q s Fs  q d Fd ESWL  Ps  Pd
Fs
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed traffic : Equal interface deflection ESWL

 In this method, the assumption is that the single wheel has a
different contact radius but the same contact pressure as the
dual wheels.
 The interface deflections for single and dual wheels with the
same contact pressure can be written as:
q as q ad qa s qa Ps Pd
ws  Fs wd  Fd F  d Fd as  ad 
E2 E2 E2 E2 q q

2
 Fd 
 ForESWL Ps    Pw
equaldeflection, d s= wd,
F
 s
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed Vehicle Procedure

 The number of repetitions of a standard vehicle or number of

standard single-axle load governs the thickness of a

pavement.
 Axle loads which are not equal to the standard single-axle

load or consist of tandem or tri-dem axles are converted to

the standard single-axle load by multiplying them with the
corresponding EALF to obtain the equivalent effect of a
standard single-axle load.
 An equivalent axle load factor (EALF) defines the damage

per pass to a pavement by the axle in question relative to

the damage per pass of a standard single-axle load, usually
the 80 kN (18 kip) single-axle load.
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed Vehicle Procedure (Cont’d)

 The summation of the ESAL of all axle loads during the

design period results in a traffic loading parameter for

pavement design.
 Due to the intractable effects of the great varieties of axle

loads and traffic volumes, highway pavements in most cases

fail by fatigue cracking and thus the design methods are based
on fixed vehicle concept.
 EALF depends on the type of pavements, thickness or

structural capacity, and the terminal conditions at which the

pavement is considered failed.
 EALFs in use today are either based on experiences

developed from the AASHTO Road Test or theoretical

 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed Vehicle Procedure - AASHTO Equivalent Factors:

 The following regression equation is one of the most widely used methods
for determining EALF obtained from the AASHTO Road Test:
W  G G
log  tx   4.79 log(18  1)  4.79 log( L x  L2 )  4.33 log L2  t  t
 Wt18   x  18
 4.2  p t  0.081( Lx  L 2 )3.23
Gt  log    x  0.40  3.23
 4 .2  1 . 5  ( SN  1) 5.19 L2

 Wtx = the number of x-axle load applications at the end of time t,

 Wt18 = the number of 18 kip (80 kN) single-axle load application to time t,
 Lx = the load in kip on one single axle, one set of tandem axles, or one set of tridem axles,
 L2 = axle code, 1 for single axles, 2 for tandem axles, and 3 for tridem axles,
 SN = structural number  a function of thickness, modulus of each layer, and drainage
condition of base and subbase.
 pt = terminal serviceability  indicates the pavement conditions to be considered as
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed Vehicle Procedure - AASHTO Equivalent Factors:

Wt18
EALF 
Wtx

 Since EALF is not very sensitive to pavement thickness, a

SN equal to 5 may be used for most cases and a pt value of 2
and 2.5 are assumed
Example 3
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed Vehicle Procedure - Theoretical Analysis:

 Fatigue characteristics and permanent deformation

parameters are important factors in pavement design.

 To limit the failure due to fatigue cracking, the allowable

number of load repetition is expressed as:

N f  f1   t   E1 
 f2  f3

where, Nf = allowable number of load repetitions for fatigue cracking,

t = the tensile strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer,
E1 = modulus of the asphalt layer, and
f , f , and f are constants to be determined
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed Vehicle Procedure - Theoretical Analysis, (Cont’d):

 If k represents the constants, then, the equation can be rewritten as
f2
1 
N f  k  
t 

 For the allowable numberf of x-kN and 80 kN f

axle load repetitions,
 1and
 N are expressed  1  as:
2 2

the corresponding N
N  k  fx  f18 N  k  
fx   f 18  
 tx   t 80 

f2
N f 80  
EALF    tx 
 The EALF is then,N fx   t 80 
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Fixed Vehicle Procedure - Theoretical Analysis, (Cont’d):

 The constant f2 was determined by Asphalt institute and Shell and
the values are 3.291 and 5.671 respectively.
 A theoretical analysis of EALF was also conducted by Deacon
based on an assumed f2 of 4 which is in the range determined by
Asphalt institute and Shell.
 Further, for single axles, it is reasonable to assume that tensile
strains due to the axles in question and the standard single-axle
are directly proportional to axle loads.
 Using 4 as the value of f2, EALF can be approximated by what is
known as the fourth power rule as:
4
 Lx 
EALF   
 L80  Example 4
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis
 The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from both
the magnitude of the individual wheel loads and their repetitions.
 It is necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles that
will use the road but also the wheel loads (or, for convenience, the
axle loads).
 The mechanism of deterioration of gravel roads differs from that of
paved roads and is directly related to the number of vehicles using
the road rather than the number of equivalent standard axles.
 The traffic volume is therefore used in the design of unpaved roads,
as opposed to the paved roads which require the conversion of axle
loads into the appropriate cumulative number of equivalent standard
axles.
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Design Period)

 Design life is the period the pavement will need to be
strengthened so that it can continue to carry traffic
satisfactorily for a further period.
 Many factors may influence this decision, but some of the
points to consider include:
    Functional importance of the road
    Traffic volume
    Location and terrain of the project
    Financial constraints
    Difficulty in forecasting traffic
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Design Period) (Cont’d)

 For important roads and for roads with high traffic volume,
rehabilitation would cause major inconvenience to road users
and thus, it generally appears economical to construct roads
with longer design periods.
 For roads in difficult locations and terrain where regular
maintenance proves to be costly and time consuming because
of poor access and non-availability of nearby construction
material sources, a longer design period is also appropriate.
 When accurate traffic estimates cannot be made or from a
purely economic point of view, it may be advisable to reduce
the design period or pavement structures may be planned to
be constructed in stages or upgraded at fixed times through
the project life.
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Design Period) (Cont’d)

Design Period (ERA, 2001)

Road Classification Design Period (years)

Trunk Road 20
Link Road 20
Main Access Road 15
Other Roads 10
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Traffic Volume )

 To determine the total traffic over the design life of the road:
 Estimate the Average Daily Traffic (ADT) currently using the
route classified into vehicle categories
 ADT is usually obtained from actual classification traffic
counts over a shorter period on existing road or estimated from
the traffic on nearby roads with similar travel pattern for new
roads.
 Traffic counts carried out over a short period as a basis for
estimating the traffic flow is likely to be subjected to large errors
because of possible daily, weekly, monthly and seasonal
variations.
 Such traffic counts are adjusted for daily and seasonal variations
to obtain the Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT).
 The AADT is defined as the total annual traffic usually summed
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Traffic Volume )

Vehicle Classification categories (ERA, 2001)
Vehicle Type of Vehicle Description
Code
1 Small car Passenger cars, minibuses (up to 24-passenger seats), taxis, pick-ups,
and Land Cruisers, Land Rovers, etc.

2 Bus Medium and large size buses above 24 passenger seats

3 Medium Truck Small and medium sized trucks including tankers up to 7 tons load

Trucks above 7 tons load

4 Heavy Truck
Trucks with trailer or semi-trailer and Tanker Trailers
5 Articulated Truck
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Traffic forecasting )

 Traffic forecasting is an uncertain process!!!
 The following factors should be considered in the determination of
the annual growth rate, r:
 Attracted or diverted traffic due to the improvement of existing
road
 Normal traffic growth due to the increased number and usage of
motor vehicles
 Generated traffic – traffic due to upgrading or constructing the
new road facility
 Development traffic due to changes in land use as a result of the
new facility
 The traffic growth rates used to project the traffic should be checked
whether they are appropriate for the different sections of the project.
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Axle Load Survey )

 To determine the axle loading, it is important to conduct axle

load surveys at the road side by weighing samples of vehicles

 Axle load equivalency factors are then determined using:

 RN 31 of TRL (adopted by ERA):

4.5
 Lx 
EALF   
 80 

 AASHTO empirical equation:

Wt18
EALF 
Wtx
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles

(ESA))
 Calculate the EALF for each type of vehicle or axle load

using the RN 31 of TRL or AASHTO method.

 Either lane of a two-lane highway can be considered as the

design lane, whereas for multilane highways, the outside lane

is the design lane.
 The identification of the design lane is important because in

some cases more trucks will travel in one direction than in

the other, or trucks may travel heavily loaded in one
direction and empty in the other direction.
 The directional distribution of traffic is important as ADT

normally is the daily traffic in both directions.

 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles

(ESA))
 Procedure to determine the cumulative equivalent standard
axles over the design life:
 Determine the daily traffic flow (ADT0i) for each class of
vehicle weighed using the results of the traffic survey and
any other recent traffic count information that is available.
 Estimate the annual growth rate “r” expressed as a decimal
fraction, and the anticipated number of years “x” between
the traffic survey and the opening of the road.
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles

(ESA) )
 Determine AADT1i the traffic volume in both directions on the
year the road is opening in each class of vehicle by:
AADT1 = ADT0i (1+r)x
 The number of vehicles in each category in both directions on
the last year of the design period is:
AADTN = AADT1 (1+r)N
 The cumulative number of vehicles in each category, T, that
will travel over the design lane over the chosen design period
N (in years) in one direction is :
T = 365 *AADT1 *L*D*[ (1+r)N – 1] / ( r )
 3. Traffic Volume and Loading
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 Traffic Analysis (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axles

n
(ESA)ESAL
)  L  D  T  APV  EALF 

i 1
Ri i i


n
ORESAL  L  D   TRi  TFi  TFi 
  AW i  EALFi 
i 1 TSi

where,
 TFi is the average ESAL per vehicle in category i;
 TRi= No. of vehicle repetitions of category i, during the design life
 Tsi = No. of vehicles of category i, during an axle load survey
 APV = Axles per vehicle for vehicle category i
 EALFi = the axle load equivalency factor for each axle in vehicle category i
Note: The
 AW = No.higher
i
of theintwo
of axles weighed directional
vehicle category i Cum. ESA
values used for design: See Example in Handout (Ch-3, p 12 & 13), Tutorial !!