ANATOMY AND

PHYSIOLOGY
QSU 3033
LECTURE 2-CELL
NOR FADILA KASIM
FAKULTI SAINS SUKAN DAN KEJURULATIHAN
UNIVERSITI PENDIDIKAN SULTAN IDRIS (UPSI)
LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
 SYSTEM LEVEL
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
SKELETAL SYSTEM
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
DIGESTIVE SYSTEMS
URINARY SYSTEM
LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION
HUMAN CELL
 CELLS
The cell is the basic unit of biological
organization
Cells vary greatly in size, shape and
function, but all cells have common
features and components
All cells have three main regions
 Nucleus
 Cytoplasm – cytosol and organelles
 Plasma membrane
 (a) NUCLEUS

• Control center of the cell

• Nuclear membrane has pores
to allow substances passage
• Chromatin genetic material
inside nucleoplasm
 (b) CYTOPLASM
Cytoplasm includes all the cellular contents
between the plasma membrane and
nucleus; it consists of cytosol and
organelles.

Organelles are specialized cellular structures

with characteristic shapes and specific
functions.
 Organelles– (1)Endoplasmic Reticulum
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of membranes that
extends from the nuclear envelope throughout the cytoplasm. Rough
ER is studded with ribosomes. Proteins synthesized on the ribosomes
enter the ER for processing and sorting. The ER is also where
glycoproteins and phospholipids form.

Smooth ER lacks ribosomes. It is the site where fatty acids and

steroids are synthesized. Smooth ER also participates in releasing
glucose from the liver into the bloodstream, inactivating or
detoxifying drugs and other potentially harmful substances, and
storing and releasing calcium ions that trigger contraction in muscle
cells.

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All

rights reserved.
 Organelles – Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Rough ER – studded
with ribosomes to
synthesize proteins
embedded in
membranes
• Smooth ER – involved
in calcium regulation,
lipid synthesis &
detoxification

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All

rights reserved.
Organelles – (2)Golgi Complex
The Golgi complex consists of flattened sacs called cisterns that
receive proteins synthesized in the rough ER. Within the Golgi
cisterns the proteins are modified, sorted, and packaged into vesicles
for transport to different destinations.

Some processed proteins leave the cell in secretory vesicles, some

are incorporated into the plasma membrane, and some enter
lysosomes.

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All

rights reserved.
Organelles – Golgi Complex
• Modifies proteins
• Forms secretory vesicles

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All

rights reserved.
Organelles – (3) Mitochondria
Mitochondria consist of a smooth outer membrane, an inner
membrane containing folds called mitochondrial cristae, and a fluid-
filled cavity called the matrix. They are called “powerhouses” of the cell
because they produce most of a cell’s ATP.

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All

rights reserved.
 Cytoplasm – Mitochondria

• Powerhouses of the cell that

form most cellular ATP

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All

rights reserved.
ORGANELLES FUNCTION
organelles
RIBOSOME Site of protein synthesis in cell

MITOCHONDRIA -Synthesis of ATP (kreb cycle)

- steroid biosynthesis, fatty acid oxidation,
nucleic acid synthesis
GOLGI APPARATUS proteins are modified, sorted, and packaged
into vesicles for transport to different
destinations
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM -rough ER= studded with ribosomes to
synthesize proteins embedded in membranes
-Smooth ER – involved in calcium regulation,
lipid synthesis & detoxification

PHAGOSOME Phagocytosis

LYSOSOME Contains various enzyme esterase, glycosidase,

hydrolytic enzyme
PEROXISOME detoxification
 (c) CELL MEMBRANE
Also known as plasma membrane- it forms the external envelope of
the cell
Separate the intracellular compartment from the extracellular fluid
which bathes the cells
 help in recognition of identical cell intracellular communication
Transport  by channel or carrier protein
 Controls traffic in & out of the cell
 selectively permeable
 allows some substances to cross more easily than others
hydrophobic vs hydrophilic
Made of phospholipids, proteins & other macromolecules
CELL MEMBRANE
CELL MEMBRANE-FLUID MOSAIC
MODEL
• A fluid mosaic model
• A bilayer of lipids with mobile globular proteins
• Membrane lipids
• make up 90-99% of molecules in membrane
• Phospholipids - 75% of lipids
• Cholesterol - 20%
• Glycolipids - 5%
STRUCTURE OF MEMBRANE

 Made of a bilayer of phospholipids. With polar heads, hydrophilic, and

non-polar tails, hydrophobic.
FLUID MOSAIC
MODEL

FLUID- because individual phospholipids and proteins

can move side-to-side within the layer, like it’s a liquid.
MOSAIC- because of the pattern produced by the
scattered protein molecules when the membrane is
viewed from above. 32
MOSAIC PROTEIN
Membranes are very complex and dynamic containing many
different parts.
Proteins decide most of the membrane’s functions.
Contain lipids and carbohydrates also
The collection of molecules in the membrane vary from
membrane to membrane
All of the structures in the membrane serve various functions
like cell recognition proteins
FUNCTION OF CELL MEMBRANE

1. Provide structural support.

2. Transport molecules across the membrane.
3. Some  as receptors for hormones.
4. Some  Some serve as ‘markers’ (antigens), that identify
tissue type of an individual.
MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY
steady traffic of small molecules and ions moves across the
plasma membrane in both directions
 Ex, sugars, amino acids, and other nutrients enter a muscle cell and waste
products leave
membranes are selectively permeable so all this traffic is under
some control. Esp. the large molecules.
Proteins assist and control the transport of ions and polar
molecules
MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANE

There are two ways in which substances can enter or leave a cell:
1) Passive
a) Simple Diffusion
b) Facilitated Diffusion
c) Osmosis (water only)
2) Active
a) endo/exocytosis
B) gated ion channel
 PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Requires no energy from the cell

Substances pass by diffusion or osmosis.
Diffusion is the movement of substance from a high
concentration to a low concentration.
This occurs due to kinetic theory. The movement of single
particle is random but on a whole they move form high to low.
Osmosis is the movement of water from more dilute solution to a
more concentrated solution.
(a) DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the net movement of molecules (or ions) from a

region of their high concentration to a region of their lower
concentration.
The difference of concentration between the two areas is often
termed as the concentration gradient, and diffusion will
continue until this gradient has been eliminated. Since
diffusion moves material from area of higher concentration to
the lower, it is described as moving solutes "down the
concentration gradient”
when the concentration gradient has been eliminated, no net
exchange of material occurs. Although material may move
forth from one area to the other, it will be balanced by
movement of the same amount of material to the opposite
direction.
Diffusion is biologically important because it enables the
abolishment of concentration gradients in the body.
For example, metabolic activity will consume oxygen, which
will reduce its concentration in the bloodstream; diffusion of
oxygen in the alveoli of the lungs allows it to be replenished.
Molecules have kinetic energy, which makes them move about
randomly.
Diffusion through a membrane
Cell membrane

Inside cell Outside cell

41
Diffusion through a membrane
Cell membrane

diffusion

Inside cell Outside cell

42
Diffusion through a membrane
Cell membrane

Inside cell Outside cell

EQUILIBRIUM

43
 FACTOR THAT INFLUENCE
DIFFUSION RATE
Distance -
The shorter the distance, the more quickly [ ] gradients are eliminated
Molecular Size
Ions and small molecules diffuse more rapidly
Temperature -
 temp.,  motion of particles
Steepness of concentrated gradient -
The larger the [ ] gradient, the faster diffusion proceeds
Membrane surface area -
The larger the area, the faster diffusion proceed
 (b) FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 Large polar molecules such as glucose and amino acids, cannot diffuse across the
phospholipid bilayer. Also ions such as Na+ or Cl- cannot pass.

 These molecules pass through protein channels instead. Diffusion through these channels
is called FACILITATED DIFFUSION.

 Movement of molecules is still PASSIVE just like ordinary diffusion, the only difference
is, the molecules go through a protein channel instead of passing between the
phospholipids.
 This is the movement of specific molecules down a
concentration gradient, passing through the membrane via a
specific carrier protein. Thus, rather like enzymes, each carrier
has its own shape and only allows one molecule (or one group
of closely related molecules) to pass through.
Selection is by size; shape; charge.
Common molecules entering/leaving cells this way include
glucose and amino-acids.
It is passive and requires no energy from the cell.
Facilitated Diffusion through a membrane
Cell membrane

Protein channel

Inside cell Outside cell

AS Biology, Cell membranes and Transport 47

Facilitated Diffusion through a membrane
Cell membrane

diffusion

Protein channel

Inside cell Outside cell

AS Biology, Cell membranes and Transport 48

Facilitated Diffusion through a membrane
Cell membrane

diffusion

Protein channel

Inside cell Outside cell

EQUILIBRIU
M
AS Biology, Cell membranes and Transport 49
 OSMOSIS
Osmosis
Movement of water
Across a selectively permeable
membrane
Down its concentration gradient
(from high cons of water to low
concentration of water)
Toward the solution containing the
higher solute concentration
 This solution has a lower water concentration
 Continues until water concentrations and solute
concentrations are the same on either side of the
membrane
Osmosis is a special example of diffusion. It is the diffusion of water
through a partially permeable membrane from a more dilute solution
to a more concentrated solution – down the water potential
gradient)
A partially permeable membrane is a barrier that permits the passage
of some substances but not others; it allows the passage of the
solvent molecules but not some of the larger solute molecules.
Cell membranes are described as selectively permeable because not
only do they allow the passage of water but also allow the passage of
certain solutes. The presence of particular solutes stimulates the
membrane to open specific channels or trigger active transport
mechanisms to allow the passage of those chemicals across the
membrane.
 Osmosis
CONCENTRATED SOLUTION
DILUTE SOLUTION
Cell membrane
partially
Sugar molecule permeable.

VERY Low conc. of

water molecules.
High water
potential.

VERY High conc. Outside cell

Inside cell
of water
molecules. High
water potential.

52
 Osmosis

Cell membrane
partially
permeable.

Low conc. of water

molecules. High
water potential.
OSMOSIS

High conc. of
Inside cell Outside cell
water molecules.
High water
potential.

53
Osmosis

Cell membrane
partially
permeable.

OSMOSIS

Inside cell Outside cell

EQUILIBRIUM. Equal water concentration on each side.

Equal water potential has been reached. There is no net
movement of water 54
Osmosis is diffusion of water

• Water is very important to life,

so we talk about water separately
• Diffusion of water from
high concentration of water to
low concentration of water
• across a
semi-permeable
membrane
 TERMINOLOGY

ISOTONIC SOLUTION- solution in which water molecules diffuse

in and out of a cell membrane at equal rate (equal concentration in
and out of cell)
HYPOTONIC SOLUTION – solution in which water molecules will
move into cell (concentration in cell is high compare to the
concentration outside cell)
HYPERTONIC SOLUTION – solution in which water molecules
will move out of cell (concentration of cell is lower compare to the
concentration outside of cell)
Cell in Isotonic Solution

10% NaCL
ENVIRONMENT
90% H2O

CELL
NO NET
10% NaCL MOVEMENT
90% H2O

What is the direction of water movement?

equilibrium
The cell is at _______________.
copyright cmassengale 57
Cell in Hypotonic Solution

10% NaCL
90% H2O

CELL
20% NaCL
80% H2O

What is the direction of water movement?

copyright cmassengale 58
Cell in Hypertonic Solution

15% NaCL ENVIRONMENT

85% H2O

CELL
5% NaCL
95% H2O

What is the direction of water movement?

copyright cmassengale 59
 Cytolysis & Plasmolysis

Cytolysis Plasmolysis
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Requires ATP, ENERGY.

move solutes against their concentration gradient, from the
side where they are less concentrated to where they are more
concentrated.
Vital for a cell to keep up its internal concentrations of small
molecules that would normally diffuse away.
done by specific proteins embedded in the membranes.
 (1)ION GATED TRANSPORT
• Cells may need to move molecules against concentration gradient
• shape change transports solute from
one side of membrane to other
• protein “pump”
• “costs” energy = ATP

conformational change
low

ATP

high
“The Doorman”
 • Many models & mechanisms

ATP ATP

antiport symport
 Sodium-Potassium Pumps.

• maintains the gradient of sodium (Na+) and potassium ions

(K+) across the membrane.
• Typically, animal cells have higher concentrations of K+ and
lower concentrations of Na+ inside the cell
• sodium-potassium pump uses the energy of one ATP to pump three Na + ions out and two
K+ ions in against the gradient.
 (2)ENDOCYTOSIS & EXOCYTOSIS
 Ways of getting large molecules in and out of the cell

 Endocytosis – Endocytosis is the process by which cells absorb molecules (such as proteins) by
engulfing them. It is used by all cells of the body because most substances important to them are
large polar molecules that cannot pass through the hydrophobic plasma or cell membrane.
 Exocytosis -Exocytosis is the cellular process in which intracellular vesicles in the cytoplasm
fuse with the plasma membrane and release or "secrete" their contents into the extracellular space
 ENDOCYTOSIS

Phagocytosis - cell eating and involves solids(WHITE BLOOD

CELL ENGULF BACTERIA)
Pinocytosis - Cell forms an invagination materials dissolve in water
to be brought into cell called “Cell Drinking”
receptor-mediated endocytosis - Receptor mediated endocytosis is an
endocytotic mechanism in which specific molecules are ingested into
the cell. The specificity results from a receptor-ligand interaction.
Receptors on the plasma membrane of the target tissue will
specifically bind to ligands on the outside of the cell. An endocytotic
process occurs and the ligand is ingested (INSULIN &
CHOLESTEROL)
PHAGOCYTOSIS
Endocytosis – Phagocytosis

Used to engulf large particles such as

food, bacteria, etc. into vesicles
Called “Cell Eating”
copyright cmassengale 71
PINOCYTOSIS
RECEPTOR-MEDIATED
ENDOCYTOSIS
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Some integral proteins have receptors on

their surface to recognize & take in
hormones, cholesterol, etc.
copyright cmassengale 74
 EXOCYTOSIS
Exocytosis-
moving
things
out.

Molecules are moved out of the cell by vesicles that fuse with the plasma
membrane.
This is how many hormones are secreted and how nerve cells communicate
75
with one another.
Tissues
Introduction
• Tissue: groups of cells with similar function
• Histology: study of tissues
• Tissue types according to their function and structure
• Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
Epithelial Tissue

© 2010 Delmar, Cengage Learning

78
Introduction

• Cover body surface and lines organs, body cavity, can also forms
glands
 Glands
• What are they?
structures that secrete substances onto a surface, into a cavity, or into blood
• Exocrine glands:
- glands with ducts
- Ex. Sweat or oil glands
• Endocrine glands:
• no ducts (directly into bloodstream)
• Ex. Thyroid, thymus, pituitary glands, etc.

80
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Pinched-off portion Dying cell releases

Secretion in duct of cell in the secretion secretory products

Vesicle releasing
contents into duct

Vesicle containing Secretory products Replacement Cell shed into

secretory products stored in the cell cell the duct

(a) Merocrine gland (b) Apocrine gland (c) Holocrine gland

Cells of the gland produce Secretory products are stored in Secretory products are stored
secretions by active transport or the cell near the lumen of the duct. in the cells of the gland.
produce vesicles that contain A portion of the cell near the lumen Entire cells are shed by the
secretory products, and the containing secretory products is gland and become part of the
vesicles empty their contents into pinched off the cell and joins secretion. The lost cells are
the duct through exocytosis. secretions produced by a merocine replaced by other cells deeper
process. in the gland.

81
Functions of Epithelial Tissues
1. Protect:
Ex. Skin
2. Act as a barrier:
Ex. Skin keeps bacteria out
3. Diffusion and Filtration:
Ex. Lungs and kidneys
4. Secretion:
Ex. Sweat glands
5. Absorption:
Ex. Small intestine

82
Introduction (cont’d.)

•Named according to shape, arrangement, function

Covering and Lining Epithelium
• Normally classified according to:
• Arrangement of cells into layers
• Shapes of cells

Copyright 2009, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Classification Based on Shape
• Squamous: flat (protection)
• Cuboidal: cube shaped (protection and
secretion)
• Columnar: tall and rectangular (secretion
and absorption)
Classification Based on Arrangement

• Simple: one cell layer

• Stratified: several layers
• Pseudostratified: appears to be several
layers but is not
Classification Based on Function
• Mucous membrane: mucus production
• Exocrine glands: simple and compound
• Endocrine: hormone secretion
• Endothelium: lines vessels
• Endocardium
• Mesothelium (serous): lines great cavities
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.2 Simple Epithelium

(a) Simple Squamous Epithelium

Structure: Function: Location:
Single layer of flat, often hexagonal Diffusion, filtration, some secretion, Lining of blood vessels and the
cells; the nuclei appear as bumps and some protection against friction heart, lymphatic vessels, alveoli
when viewed in cross section because of the lungs, portions of the
the cells are so flat kidney tubules, lining of serous
membranes of body cavities
(pleural, pericardial, peritoneal)
Lung alveoli

Free surface

Nucleus

Basement
membrane

Simple
squamous
epithelial
cell

LM 640x

a(2): © McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Inc./Dennis Strete, photographer

89
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.2 continued

(b) Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Structure: Function: Location:
Single layer of cube-shaped cells; Active transport and facilitated Kidney tubules, glands and their ducts,
some cells have microvilli (kidney diffusion result in secretion and choroid plexuses of the brain, lining Kidney
tubules) or cilia (terminal bronchioles absorption by cells of the kidney of terminal bronchioles of the lungs,
of the lungs) tubules; secretion by cells of glands and surfaces of the ovaries
and choroid plexuses; movement of
particles embedded in mucus out of
the terminal bronchioles by ciliated cells

Free surface

Nucleus

Simple
cuboidal
epithelial
cell
Basement
membrane

LM 640x

b(2): © Victor Eroschenko

90
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.2 continued

(c) Simple Columnar Epithelium
Structure: Function: Location:
Single layer of tall, narrow cells; some Movement of particles out of the Glands and some ducts,
Lining of
cells have cilia (bronchioles of lungs, bronchioles of the lungs by ciliated bronchioles of lungs,
stomach and
auditory tubes, uterine tubes, and cells; partially responsible for the auditory tubes, uterus,
intestines
uterus) or microvilli (intestines) movement of oocytes through uterine tubes, stomach,
the uterine tubes by ciliated cells; intestines, gallbladder, bile
secretion by cells of the glands, ducts, and ventricles of
the stomach, and the intestine; the brain
absorption by cells of the intestine

Free surface

Goblet cell
containing mucus
Nucleus

Simple
columnar
epithelial
cell
Basement LM 640x
membrane

c(2): © Victor Eroschenko

91
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.2 continued

(d) Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Structure: Function: Location:
Single layer of cells; some Synthesize and secrete mucus on to Lining of nasal cavity, nasal
cells are tall and thin and reach the the free surface and move mucus sinuses, auditory tubes, pharynx,
free surface, and others do not; the (or fluid) that contains foreign trachea, and bronchi of lungs Trachea
nuclei of these cells are at different particles over the surface of the
levels and appear stratified; the cells free surface and from passages Bronchus
are almost always ciliated and are
associated with goblet cells that
secrete mucus on to the free surface

Cilia

Free surface
Goblet cell
containing mucus
Pseudostratified
columnar
epithelial cell

Nucleus

Basement
membrane
LM 413x

d(2): © Victor Eroschenko

92
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.3 Simple Epithelium

(a) Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Structure: Function: Location: Skin
Several layers of cells that are cuboidal Protects against abrasion, forms Keratinized—outer layer of the skin;
in the basal layer and progressively a barrier against infection, and nonkeratinized—mouth, throat, Cornea
flattened toward the surface; the reduces loss of water from the body larynx, esophagus, anus, vagina,
Mouth
epithelium can be nonkeratinized (moist) inferior urethra, and corneas
or keratinized; in nonkeratinized stratified
squamous epithelium, the surface cells
retain a nucleus and cytoplasm; in keratinized Esophagus
stratified epithelium, the cytoplasm of cells
at the surface is replaced by a protein called
keratin, and the cells are dead

Free surface

Nonkeratinized
stratified
squamous
epithelial cell

Nuclei

Basement
membrane

LM 286x

a(2): © Victor Eroschenko

93
Connective Tissue

© 2010 Delmar, Cengage Learning

94
Introduction
• Cells with large amount of intercellular material
• Matrix embedded with:
• Collagen
• Elastin
• Subgroups: loose, dense, supporting (cartilage, ossues/bone), liquid
(blood)
• Different from epithelial tissue
• Do not occur on body surface
• High vascular (except in tendons)
• Have nerve supply (except cartilage)
Functions of Connective Tissue
1. Enclose and separate:
Ex. around organs and muscles

2. Connect tissues:
Ex. Tendons: connect bone to muscle
Ex. Ligaments: connect bone to bone

3. Support and Movement:

Ex. bones

97
4. Storage:
Ex. bones store calcium and adipose tissue stores fat
5. Cushion and insulate:
Ex. adipose tissue protects organs and helps conserve heat
6. Transport:
Ex. Blood
7. Protect:
Ex. Immune cells

98
Types of Ordinary Connective Tissue

99
 (1) Loose

Fills space between and penetrates organs

Areolar: injury repair, phagocytosis, inflammatory
response
Fibroblasts, histiocytes, mast cells
Adipose: fat storage
 TABLE 4.5 Connective Tissue Proper: Loose Connective Tissue
(a) Areolar Connective Tissue

Structure: Function: Location:

A fine network of fibers (mostly collagen Loose packing, support, and nourishment for Widely distributed throughout the body;
fibers with a few elastic fibers) with spaces the structures with which it is associated substance on which epithelial basement
between the fibers; fibroblasts, macrophages, membranes rest; packing between glands,
and lymphocytes are located in the spaces muscles, and nerves; attaches the skin to
underlying tissues

Elastic
fiber Epidermis
Nucleus Skin
Dermis
Loose connective tissue
Collagen with fat
fiber Muscle

LM 400X

101
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TABLE 4.5 continued

(b) Adipose Tissue
Structure: Function: Location:
Little extracellular matrix surrounding cells; Packing material, thermal insulator, energy Predominantly in subcutaneous areas,
the adipocytes, or fat cells, are so full of lipid storage, and protection of organs against mesenteries, renal pelves, around kidneys,
that the cytoplasm is pushed to the periphery injury from being bumped or jarred attached to the surface of the colon,
of the cell mammary glands, and in loose connective
tissue that penetrates into spaces and
crevices

Adipose
tissue

Nucleus Mammary
gland

Adipocytes
or fat cells

LM 100x

(b): © Ed Reschke

102
2. Dense

a.Dense regular : tendon, ligament- strong attachment

b.Dense irregular under dermis(skin) – provide strength
c.Elastic : lung tissue, bronchial tube, trachea (allowing organ to
stretch)
Location: tendons, ligaments, skin
Structure: collagen fibers packed close together
Function: connect and can withstand pulling forces
TABLE 4.6 Connective Tissue Proper: Dense Connective Tissue
(a) Dense Regular Connective Tissue
Structure: Function: Location:
Matrix composed of collagen fibers Withstand great pulling forces exerted in Tendons (attach muscle to bone) and
running in somewhat the same direction the direction of fiber orientation due to ligaments (attach bones to each other);
in tendons and ligaments; collagen fibers great tensile strength and stretch also found in the dermis of the skin, organ
run in several directions in the dermis of resistance capsules, and the outer layer of many
the skin and in organ capsules blood vessels

Ligament
Nucleus of
fibroblast
Tendon
Collagen
fibers

LM 165x

104
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TABLE 4.6 continued

(b) Dense Elastic Connective Tissue
Structure: Function: Location:
Matrix composed of collagen fibers and Capable of stretching and recoiling like a Elastic ligaments between the vertebrae
elastin fibers running in somewhat the rubber band with strength in the direction and along the dorsal aspect of the neck
same direction in elastic ligaments; of fiber orientation (nucha) and in the vocal cords; also found
elastic fibers run in connective tissue of in elastic connective tissue of blood
blood vessel walls vessel walls

Base of tongue
Elastin Vocal folds
fibers (true vocal cords)

Nucleus of Vestibular fold

fibroblast (false vocal cord)

LM 100x

(b): © Victor Eroschenko

105
3. Supporting connective tissue
(a)cartilage
(b)bone
Cartilage

• Type of connective tissue

• Composed of chondrocytes (cell) that are found in
lacunae
• Contains collagen
• Withstands compressions
• Provides support, flexibility, strength

107
 Types of Cartilage
• Hyaline cartilage
Location: covers ends of bones
Structure: some collagen fibers
Function: reduces friction (cushion)-provide smooth surface for joint
movement, flexibility , support

• Fibrocartilage
Location: disc between vertebra, knee
Structure: lots of collagen fibers
Function: can withstand compression- support fussion

• Elastic cartilage
Location: ear and tip of nose
Structure: elastic fibers
Function: can recoil for maintaining shape, flexibility, suppory
108
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TABLE 4.7 Supporting Connective Tissue: Cartilage

(a) Hyaline Cartilage
Structure: Function: Location:
Collagen fibers are small and evenly Allows growth of long bones; provides Growing long bones, cartilage rings of the
dispersed in the matrix, making the matrix rigidity with some flexibility in the trachea, respiratory system, costal cartilage of ribs,
appear transparent; the cartilage cells, or bronchi, ribs, and nose; forms strong, nasal cartilages, articulating surface of
chondrocytes, are found in spaces, or smooth, yet somewhat flexible articulating bones, and the embryonic skeleton
lacunae, within the firm but flexible matrix surfaces; forms the embryonic skeleton

Bone

Hyaline
cartilage
Chondrocyte
in a lacuna
Nucleus

Matrix

LM 240x

(a): © Carolina Biological Supply/PhototakeUSA.com

 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.7 continued

(b) Fibrocartilage

Structure: Function: Location:

Collagen fibers similar to those in hyaline Somewhat flexible and capable of Intervertebral disks, pubic symphysis,
cartilage; the fibers are more numerous than withstanding considerable pressure; and articular disks (e.g., knees and
in other cartilages and are arranged in connects structures subjected to great temporomandibular [jaw] joints)
thick bundles pressure

Chondrocyte
in lacuna
Nucleus
Intervertebral
disk
Collagen fibers
in matrix

LM 240x

(c) Elastic Cartilage

Structure: Function: Location:
Similar to hyaline cartilage, but Provides rigidity with even more flexibility than External ears, epiglottis, and
matrix also contains elastin fibers hyaline cartilage because elastic fibers return to auditory tubes
their original shape after being stretched

Elastic fibers
in matrix

Chondrocytes
in lacunae
Nucleus

LM 240x

(b); © Victor Eroschenko; (c): © Victor Eroschenko

 (b) Bone
• Hard connective tissue

• 2 types: compact and spongy

• Composed of osteocytes

111
Specialized Connective Tissue
(cont’d.)
• Bone
• Compact
• Cancellous
• Mineral salts: especially calcium and phosphorus
• Teeth
• Dentin
• Enamel
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.8 Supporting Connective Tissue: Bone

Structure: Function: Location:
Hard, bony matrix predominates; many Provides great strength and support and All bones of the body
osteocytes (not seen in this bone preparation) protects internal organs, such as the brain;
are located within lacunae; the matrix is bone also provides attachment sites for
organized into layers called lamellae muscles and ligaments; the joints of bones
allow movements

Lacuna

Central Spongy bone

canal

Compact bone
Matrix
organized
into lamellae
LM 240x

© Trent Stephens
Specialized Connective Tissue
(cont’d.)
Bone (osseus tissue)

Photo copyright Fred Hossler/Visuals Unlimited, Inc.

4. Liquid connective tissue
(a)blood
(b)lymph
Connective Tissue Functions
• Support
• Bones, cartilage
• Nourishment
• Blood
• Transportation
• Blood
• Connection
• Tendons, ligaments
Connective Tissue Functions
(cont’d.)
• Movement
• Bones, tendons
• Protection and insulation
• Bones, blood, fat
• Storage
• Bone, fat
• Attachment and separation
• Attaches skin to muscle
 Blood

• Liquid connective tissue

• Erythrocytes (red blood cell-RBC), leukocytes (white blood cell-WBC),

platelets (prevent blood cloth)

• Transport food, oxygen, waste, hormones

118
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.9 Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood

Structure: Function: Location:
Blood cells and a fluid matrix Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, Within the blood vessels; white blood cells
nutrients, waste products, and other substances; frequently leave the blood vessels and enter
protects the body from infections and is the interstitial spaces
involved in temperature regulation

Red
blood
cells

White
blood
cells

LM 400x

© Ed Reschke
Muscle Tissue

© 2010 Delmar, Cengage Learning

120
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.10 Muscle Tissue

(a) Skeletal Muscle
Structure: Function: Location:
Skeletal muscle cells or fibers appear Movement of the body; under Attached to bone or other
striated (banded); cells are large, long, voluntary control connective tissue
and cylindrical, with many nuclei Muscle

Nucleus (near
periphery of cell)

Skeletal
muscle
fiber

Striations
LM 800x

a(2): © Ed Reschke
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.10 continued

(b) Cardiac Muscle
Structure: Function: Location:
Cardiac muscle cells are cylindrical and Pumps the blood; under In the heart
striated and have a single nucleus; they involuntary (unconscious)
are branched and connected to one control
another by intercalated disks, which
contain gap junctions

Nucleus

Cardiac
muscle cell

Intercalated disks
(special junctions
between
cells)

Striations

LM 800x

b(2): © Ed Reschke
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.10 continued

(c) Smooth Muscle
Structure: Function: Location:
Smooth muscle cells are tapered at Regulates the size of organs, forces In hollow organs, such
each end, are not striated, and have fluid through tube, controls the as the stomach and intestine; Wall of stomach
a single nucleus amount of light entering the eye, skin and eyes Wall of colon
and produces ″goose bumps″ in the skin;
under involuntary (unconscious) control
Wall of small
intestine

Nucleus

Smooth
muscle cell LM 800x

c(2): © Victor Eroschenko

Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)
• Striated (skeletal)
• Long thin cells
• Multinucleated and striated
• Actin and myosin
• Voluntary
• Movement by pulling on bones
Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)
• Cardiac
• Only in the heart
• Uninucleated and striated
• Involuntary
• Cylindrical shape
• Connected to other cardiac muscle cells by intercalated disks
Muscle Tissue (cont’d.)
• Smooth
• Spindle-shaped, single nucleus
• Not striated
• Involuntary
• Digestive tract, arteries and veins, ureters
• Peristalsis
Nervous Tissue

© 2010 Delmar, Cengage Learning

127
Nervous Tissue
• Consist of neurons or nerve cells

• Found in brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves

• Controls and coordinates body movements

• Includes axons, dendrites, cell bodies

128
Nervous Tissue (cont’d.)
• Neuroglia: supporting cells
• Nervous tissue
• Makes up brain, spinal cord and nerves
• Is most highly organized tissue of the body
• Controls and coordinates body activities
• Allows perception
• Controls emotion and reasoning
• Stores memories
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

TABLE 4.11 Nervous Tissue

Structure: Function: Location:
Brain
A neuron consists of dendrites, a cell Neurons transmit information in In the brain, spinal cord,
body, and a long axon; neuroglia, the form of action potentials, store and ganglia
or support cells, surround the neurons information, and integrate and evaluate Spinal
data; neuroglia support, protect, and cord
form specialized sheaths around axons
Spinal
nerves

Dendrite

Cell body
of neuron

Nucleus
of neuron

Nuclei of
neuroglia

Neuroglia
LM 240x
Axon

© Trent Stephens

130
Tissue Repair
• What is it?
substitution of dead cells for viable cells

• Regeneration:
cells of same type develop (no scar)

• Replacement:
cells of a different type develop (scar)

131
 Inflammation
• Occurs when tissues are damaged

• Signals the body’s defenses (white blood cells) to destroy foreign

materials and damaged cells so repair can occur.

• Chemical mediators:
- released after injury
- cause dilation of blood vessels

132
Symptoms of Inflammation
1. Redness: blood vessels dilate

2. Heat: due to increased blood flow

3. Swelling: from water and proteins

4. Pain: nerve endings are stimulated by

damage and swelling

133
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Splinter
Bacteria
introduced

1 A splinter in the skin causes damage and

introduces bacteria. Chemical mediators of
inflammation are released or activated in injured 1 Epidermis
tissues and adjacent blood vessels. Some blood
vessels rupture, causing bleeding.

2 Chemical mediators cause capillaries to dilate

and the skin to become red. Chemical 2 Dermis
mediators also increase capillary permeability,
and fluid leaves the capillaries, producing
swelling (arrows). Blood
vessel

Bacteria
proliferating

3 White blood cells (e.g., neutrophils) leave the

dilated blood vessels and move to the site of
3
bacterial infection, where they begin to
phagocytize bacteria and other debris.

Neutrophil
phagocytizing
bacteria Neutrophil
migrating through
blood vessel wall
Summary
• Introduced the concept of tissues and how to classify tissues
• Classified epithelial tissue based on shape and arrangement
• Described the three major types of connective tissue
• Described the three types of muscle tissue
• Discussed nervous tissue and its functions