Motivation Theories

MOTIVATION THEORIES
FAIZA NADEEM
M S M AN A G EM EN T S C I EN C ES , S PRI N G 20 1 5
O R G AN I ZAT I O N A L A N D M AN AG EM EN T TH E O RI E S
MOTIVATION
Motivation
Motivation can be thought of as the force that drives behavior.
Motivation refers to “the reasons underlying behavior”, it is “the
attribute that moves us to do or not to do something”
Basic motivational concepts
◦ Reward—a work outcome of positive value to the individual
◦ Extrinsic rewards—valued outcomes given to someone by another person.
◦ Intrinsic rewards—valued outcomes that occur naturally as a person works
on a task.
Early Philosophers – Motivation Theories
Plato (427 B.C. – 347 B.C) —the desire for truth (curiosity) is one of the greatest motivators in life, and wisdom is one of the greatest intrinsic
joys.
Adam Smith (1723-1790)—“enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other people
Max Weber (1841-1925)—work contributes to salvation; Protestant work ethic
Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) (TRADITIONAL MODEL)—founder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between management and
labor to enlarge company profits – wage incentives motivate employees
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)—delve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needs
Elton Mayo (1880-1949) (HUMAN RELATIONS MODEL)—people are motivated by much more than financial self-interest and that motivation,
generated when people feel valued and cared for, increases productivity.
Modern Views on Motivation Theories
F. Landy and W. Backer (1985) divided modern views on motivation theory and practice, represented by various
authors, into five categories:
1. Needs Theories (A.H. Maslow 1943, McGregor 1960, J. W. Atkinson 1964, C.P. Alderfer 1972, D. McClelland 1985),
2. Reinforcement Theory (B. F. Skinner, 1953),
3. Equity Theory (J. S. Adams 1963),
4. Expectancy Theory (Vroom 1964),
5. Goal-setting Theory (E. Locke 1990).

Motivation Theories
1. Content Theories (Need-based Theories)
2. Reinforcement Theory (Extrinsic Factor of Motivation)
3. Process Theories (Intrinsic Factors for Motivation)
4. Management Theories of Motivation
1) CONTENT THEORIES
◦ Human needs and how people with different needs may respond to different work situations.
a) Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of Needs (1954)

b) Alderfer’s ERG Theory (1972)
c) McClelland Acquired Needs Theory (1985)
d) Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory (1974)
a) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
•Abraham Maslow (1906-1964)
•(1954) theory of motivation; once each level has been met, the theory is that an individual will
be motivated by and strive to progress to satisfy the next higher level of need.
- Physiological needs
- Safety needs
- Belonging needs
- Esteem needs
- Self-actualization needs
b) Herzberg Two-Factor Theory
Fredrick Herzberg (1923-2000)
(1959) Two factor theory, Modified Maslow’s theory of needs
Two areas of need for employee motivation
◦ Hygiene
◦ Elements of job context
◦ Sources of job dissatisfaction
◦ Motivators
◦ Elements of job content
◦ Sources of job satisfaction and motivation
c) Alderfer’s ERG Theory and
d) McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory
Clayton Alderfer (1940-2015) David McClelland (1917-1998).
(1972), ERG Theory (1985), Acquired needs theory
three components drawn upon Maslow’s Needs are not innate, but are learned or
Theory (E , R & G) developed as a result of one’s life experience.
Individuals were motivated to move forward Three types of Needs

and backward through motivator levels ◦ Need for achievement (nAch)
◦ Existence needs — desires for physiological and material ◦ Desire to do something better or more efficiently, to solve
well-being. problems, or to master complex tasks.
◦ Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal ◦ Need for affiliation (nAff)
relationships. ◦ Desire to control other persons, to influence their
◦ Growth needs — desires for continued psychological behavior, or to be responsible for other people.
growth and development. ◦ Personal power versus social power.
◦ Need for power (nPow)
Frustration-regression principle.
◦ Desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm
◦ An already satisfied lower-level need becomes relations with other persons.
reactivated when a higher-level need is frustrated.
Comparison of 4 Content Theories
2) REINFORCEMENT THEORY
B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)
(1953), (Operant Conditioning)
How people’s behavior is influenced by environmental consequences.
Individuals are motivated when their behaviors are reinforced.
Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.
◦ Positive reinforcement
◦ Negative reinforcement (avoidance learning)
◦ Punishment
◦ Extinction
3) PROCESS THEORIES
◦ How people give meaning to rewards and make decisions on various work-related behaviors (Cognitive Approaches)
a) Adam’s Equity Theory (1963)

b) Vroom Expectancy Theory (1964)
c) Locke’s Goal Setting Theory (1990)
a) Equity Theory & b) Expectancy Theory and
J. Stacey Adams (1963) Equity Theory Victor Vroom (1964) Expectancy Theory
◦ Individuals are motivated when they ◦ Individuals are motivated by performance and
perceive that they are treated equitably in the expected outcomes of their own behavior
comparison to others within the ◦ Key expectancy theory variables:
organization
◦ Expectancy — belief that working hard will
◦ When people believe that they have been result in desired level of performance.
treated unfairly in comparison to others, ◦ Instrumentality — belief that successful
they try to eliminate the discomfort and performance will be followed by rewards.
restore a perceived sense of equity to the ◦ Valence — value a person assigns to rewards
situation. and other work related outcomes.
◦ Perceived inequity.
◦ Perceived equity.
c) Goal Setting Theory
Edwin Locke (1990) Goal Setting Theory
◦ Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating.
◦ Management by Objectives (MBO)
◦ Individuals are motivated to take action to achieve those goals
◦ Provide direction to people in their work.
◦ Clarify performance expectations.
◦ Establish a frame of reference for feedback.
◦ Provide a foundation for behavioral self-management.
4) MANAGEMENT THEORIES
OF MOTIVATION
a) Taylor Scientific Management Theory (1911)

b) McGregor Theory X and Theory Y (1960)
c) Ouchi Theory Z (1981)
a) Scientific Management Theory
Fredrick W. Taylor (1856-1915)
(1911) Theory of Scientific Management
People are motivated and able to continually work harder and more
efficiently if
◦ Employees/Labor are paid on the basis of the amount and quality + quantity of the
work performed
◦ According to Taylor, Wage Incentives (Rewards) are the means of Motivation
b) McGregor Theory X and Theory Y
Douglas Murray McGregor (1906-1964)
Considered ‘human side of enterprise’ with his theory of X & Y (1960)
Dichotomy about the assumptions managers make about workers and how these assumptions affect
behavior.
◦ Theory X
◦ Theory Y
Theory X, managers, tend to assume that workers are lazy, need to be coerced, have little ambition, and
are focused on security needs, generally assume that lower-order needs dominate individuals. These
managers then treat their subordinates as if these assumptions were true. Motivation: Punishment
(negative or positive)
Theory Y managers, tend to assume that workers do not inherently dislike work, are capable of self-
control, have the capacity to be creative and innovative, and generally have high-level needs that are
often not met on the job. These managers then treat their subordinates as if these assumptions were true.
Motivation: Reinforcement (negative or positive)
McGregor Theory X and Y and
Maslow Hierarchy of Needs
SA Theory Y - a set of assumptions

of how to manage individuals
Esteem
motivated by higher order
needs
Love (Social)
Theory X - a set of assumptions
Safety & Security of how to manage individuals
motivated by lower order needs
Physiological
c) Ouchi’s Theory Z
William G. Bill Ouchi (1981)
According to him Z stands for Zeal
Employees who are involved in and committed to an organization will be more motivated
towards increasing productivity.
Theory Z managers provide rewards (e.g., long-term employment, promotion, participatory
management etc)
Theory Z combines positive aspects of American and Japanese management into a modified
approach aimed at increasing managerial effectiveness while remaining compatible with the
norms and values of society and culture.
Based on Japanese approach to management and motivation.
SOME MORE CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
Self Efficacy or Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura 1963)
◦ Individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task
◦ Self-efficacy increased by:
◦ Enactive mastery – gain experience
◦ Vicarious modeling – see someone else do the task
◦ Verbal persuasion – someone convinces you that you have the skills
◦ Arousal – get energized
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET – Deci 1975)
◦ Psychology that is designed to explain the effects of external consequences on internal motivation.
◦ Proposes that the introduction of extrinsic rewards for work (pay) that was previously intrinsically rewarding
tends to decrease overall motivation
◦ Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation, while tangible rewards undermine it
REFERENCES
Landy, F. J., & Becker, W. S. (1985). Adaptive motivation theory (No. 85-1). PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV UNIVERSITY
PARK DEPT OF PSYCHOLOGY.
Shanks, N. H. (2007). Chapter 2. Management and Motivation. Jones and Barlett, 23-35.
Adams, J. S. (1963). "Toward an Understanding of Equity." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 422–436.
Alderfer, C. P. (1972). Existence, Relatedness, and Growth: Human Needs in Organizational Settings. New York: Free
Press.
Herzberg, Frederick, B. Mausner, and B. Snyderman (1952). The Motivation to Work. New York: McGraw Hill.
Locke, Edwin A. (1968). "Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives." Organizational Behavior and Human
Performance, 157–189.
Maslow, Abraham H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper & Row.
McClelland, David C. (1962). "Business Drive and National Achievement." Harvard Business Review, 99–112.
Vroom, Victor H. (1964). Work and Motivation. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

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Max Weber (1841-1925)—work contributes to salvation; Protestant work ethic

2. Reinforcement Theory (B. F. Skinner, 1953),

3. Equity Theory (J. S. Adams 1963),

4. Expectancy Theory (Vroom 1964),

5. Goal-setting Theory (E. Locke 1990).

a) Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of Needs (1954)

Individuals were motivated to move forward Three types of Needs

a) Adam’s Equity Theory (1963)

a) Taylor Scientific Management Theory (1911)

SA Theory Y - a set of assumptions

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