Chapter 2

Transducers and their response

 2.1 Introduction to Transducers
• A measurement system takes an input quantity and transforms
it into an output quantity that can be observed or recorded,
such as
– the movement of a pointer on a dial or
– the magnitude of a digital display.
• Here, we will focus on the characteristics of both
– the input signals to a measurement system and
– the resulting output signals.
• The shape and form of an input or output signal are often
referred to as its waveform.
• The waveform contains information about
– the magnitude of amplitude, which indicate the size of the input
quantity, and
– the frequency, which indicates the way the signal changes in time.
Introduction to Transducers
• The transducer converts the sensed signal into a voltage
that is measured by a voltmeter.
• Transfer efficiency: It is the ratio of output information
delivered by the (Sensor/transducer) to the information
received by the (sensor/transducer).

• Since the transducer can not generate any information ,

the transfer efficiency can not be greater than unity (max
100%).
• The detector- transducer stage must be designed to have
a high Transfer efficiency to the extent possible.
2.2 Active and passive transducers
• Passive transducers do not add energy as part
of the measurement process but may remove
energy in their operation.
– A thermocouple, which converts a physical
temperature signal into a voltage signal.
– The temperature gradient(dT/dt) in the
environment generates a thermoelectric voltage
that becomes the signal variable.
• (consider the current situation of temperature
increase and shock formation).
– A pressure gage where the pressure being measured
exerts a force on a mechanical system (diaphragm,
aneroid or Borden pressure gage) that converts the
pressure force input signal into a displacement output
a signal variable.
– The displacement of the diaphragm can be
transmitted through a mechanical gearing system to
the displacement of an indicating needle on the
display of the gage.
Figure Bourdon tube pressure gauge.
Active sensors/transducers/
• Also known as self generating type transducers
Develop their own voltage or current.
• Energy required for production of output signal is
obtained by quantity being measured.
• Add energy to the measurement environment as
part of the measurement process.
– Ex, Electronic & Piezoelectric transducers.
– A radar or sonar system, where the distance to some
object is measured by actively sending out a radio
(radar) or acoustic (sonar) wave to reflect off of some
object and measure its range from the sensor.
2.3 Static and dynamic signals
• A static signal does not vary with time.
– measuring the length of a board using a ruler
• A dynamic signal is defined as a time-dependent signal.
– The measurement system must be able to respond fast
enough to keep up with the input signal.
• Measuring the vibration of a motor, or engine.
– Vibration signals vary in amplitude and time.
• Assessing the ride quality of an automobile suspension
system.
– As a tire moves along the road, the road surface
provides the time-dependent input signal, F(t), to
the suspension at the tire contact
 Lumped parameter model of an automobile
suspension showing input and output signals.

A measurement system performs some

mathematical operation (differential
equation) on a sensed input signal, F(t),
provides the output signal, y(t).
The motion sensed by the passengers, y(t), is a basis for the ride
quality and can be described by a waveform that depends on the
input from the road and the behavior of the suspension.
2.4 Common input forcing functions.
2.5 Transducers system response(output)
• System response: the ability of the system to
transmit & present all the relevant information
contained in the input signal & to exclude all
others.
• Response is a measure of a system’s fidelity
(faithful/accuracy) to purpose.
• If the output is faithful to input, i.e. the output
signals have the same phase relationships as that
of the input signal, the system is said to have good
System response.
Transducers system response
• If there is a lag or delay in the output signal
which may be due to natural inertia of the
system, it is known as ‘measurement lag’
• “Rise time” : is a measure of the speed of
response of a measuring system and a short rise
time is desirable.
– It is the time taken for system to change from 5% to
95% of its final value.
2.6 Mathematical modeling and simulation
• Simulating measurement system behavior
through mathematical modeling is important
– to system design and
– System specification.
• Each measurement system responds differently
to different types of input signals and to the
dynamic content within these signals.
Measurement System Model
• General model of a measurement system,
which consists of an nth-order linear ODE

a) Zero-Order Systems model

– The simplest model of a measurement systems and
one used with static signals.
Dividing through by a0 gives
where K=1/a0. K is called the static sensitivity
or steady state gain of the system.
- In a zero-order model, the system output is considered
to respond to the input signal instantaneously.
b) First-Order Systems
• Systems with a storage(electric capacitor, thermal system) or
dissipative capability (electric or thermal resistance) but
negligible inertial forces may be modeled using a first-order
differential equation of the form

Where τ=a1/a0. The parameter τ is called the time constant of

the system. The ratio a0(dissipative) and a1(storage), always
have the dimensions of time.

• The time constant provides a measure of the speed of

system response, and as such is an important specification in
measuring dynamic input signals.
 Two special input cases
• Consider the response of the general first-order
system to the following two forms of an input signal:
– the step (sudden constant) input and
– simple periodic input function.
Case 1) The step function is defined as
F(t)=0 @ t=0
F(t)=A @ t>0
• A sudden change in the input signal from a constant
value of one magnitude to a constant value of some
other magnitude, such as a sudden change in loading,
displacement, or any physical variable.
With an arbitrary initial condition denoted by, y(0)=y0.
Solving, the response y(t) {The solution of the DE,} is
the time response of the system becomes;

The equation describes the behavior of the system to a

step change in input.
And y(t) is indicated on the display of a measurement
system.
 Two response parts of a step input
• The first term is known as the steady response
because, as t→∞, the response of y(t) approaches
this steady state value.
• The steady response is that portion of the output
signal that remains after the transient response
has decayed to zero.
• The second term is known as the transient
response of y(t) because, as t→∞, the magnitude
of this term eventually reduces to zero.
-Designating the steady state value, KA=y∞,
the DE can be rewritten as
 • The term ᴦ(t) is called the error fraction of the output
signal.
• The error fraction decreases from a value of 1 and
approaches a value of 0 with increasing τ=t.

First-order system time response

First-order system time response to a to a step function input: the error
step function input: the time response, y(t). fraction,ᴦ.
• Let the percent response of the system to a step change be
given as (1-ᴦ)*100.
– When t=τ, where ᴦ=0.368, the system will have responded to 63.2%
of the step change.
– When t=2.3τ, the system will have responded ( with error fraction
ᴦ=0.10) to 90% of the step change;
– by τ=5t, we find the response to be 99.3%.
• The time required for a system to respond to a value that is
90% of the step input, y∞ - y0, is important and is called the
rise time of the system.
– It the time required to achieve a response of 90% of the
step input.
•  This requires;

solving; t=2.303τ
Case 2) A simple Periodic (harmonic input) function

• The linear DE is expressed as:

• With initial conditions:

– y(t=0)=y0, @ t=0 and
– F(t)=Asinωt for t>0.
• The solution(response) becomes;

Transient response steady response

Two responses
• The first term is the transient response, as t increases,
this term decays to zero and no longer influences the
output signal.
• The second term is steady response; this term persists
for as long as the periodic input is maintained.
• The frequency of the steady response term remains
the same as the input signal frequency, but note that
the amplitude of the steady response depends on the
value of the applied frequency,ω.
• The phase angle of the periodic function has changed.
• Where τ=a1/a0. The parameter τ is called the time
constant of the system.
 The above formula can be written as

 
where B(ω) represents the amplitude of the steady
response and
The angle φ(ω)represents the phase shift angle.
τ=a1/a0 is the time constant.
We can see that the steady state response lags the input
signal by a time delay of
;
where ω is the frequency of the input signal.
• The
  steady state amplitude response decreases with
an increase in an input frequency through the term

• The graph shows relationship between a sinusoidal

input and output: same frequency, a phase shift(time
delay) and a reduced amplitude.
 Response Characteristics of the System(summary)

• Amplitude response
• Frequency response
• Phase response
• Slew rate
 Amplitude Response
• A system is said to have to good amplitude
response if it treats all the input amplitudes
uniformly. i.e. if an input amplitude of 5 units is
indicated as 20 units on the output side, an input
of 10 units should give 40 units on the output side.
• In practice a measuring system will have good
amplitude response over an unlimited range of
input amplitudes.
• For ex, a 3-stage amplifier used for strain
measurement has good response up to an input
voltage of 10-2 volts as shown in fig.
• Amplitude response of 3-stage amplifier used
for strain measurement
 Frequency response
• A system is said to have a good frequency response
when it treats all input frequencies with equal
faithfulness. For ex, if an input amplitude of 5 units at
60 Cps is indicated as 10 units on the output side, then
irrespective of the change in input frequency, the
output amplitude should not change as long as the
input amplitude does not change.
• In practice a measuring system will have a lower &
upper limits beyond which the system can not have a
good frequency response.
• The fig shows response curve of a device which has
good frequency response between 5 Cps & 30,000 Cps.
Frequency response of 3-stage amplifier used
for strain measurement
 Phase response
• Amplitude response and frequency response are
important for all types of input signals whether
simple or complex.
• The phase response is, however, important only
for complex waves.
• If the input signal is simple like a sine wave, the
amplitude of the output, though out of phase
with input, will not be affected.
• This is because the shape of the cycle is
repetitive and does not change between the
limits of the cycle.