Chapter 1

Introduction
Lesson Objective
• Introducing Artificial Intelligence
• Exploring the importance and related field of AI
• Learning the brief history of AI and its applications
• Describing what is knowledge and learning
Overview
1.1 Definition of Artificial Intelligence
1.2 Importance of Artificial Intelligence
1.3 AI and related fields
1.4 Brief history of Artificial Intelligence
1.5 Application of Artificial Intelligence
1.6 Definition and importance of Knowledge and learning
Definition of Artificial Intelligence
Meaning of the word: ``Intelligence'‘
• The ability to reason
• The ability to understand
• The ability to create
• The ability to learn from past experience
• The ability to plan and execute complex task
What Behaviors are Intelligent?
Everyday tasks:
 recognize a friend, recognize who is calling, translate from one
language to another, interpret a photograph, talk, cook a dinner
Formal tasks:
prove a logic theorem, geometry, calculus, play chess, checkers, or Go
Expert tasks:
engineering design, medical designers, financial analysis
Artificial Intelligence
Based on the above definition of intelligence, `artificial intelligence' is
the branch of the science and engineering necessary to create artifacts
that can
• acquire knowledge, i.e., can learn and extract knowledge; and
• reason with knowledge (leading to doing tasks such as planning,
explaining, diagnosing, acting rationally, etc.),
• it is the branch of science concerned with making computers behave
like humans
• AI is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines,
especially intelligent computer programs
Artificial Intelligence

• According to Barr and Feigenbaum, “Artificial Intelligence is the part

of computer science concerned with designing intelligence computer
systems, that is, systems that exhibit the characteristics we associate
with intelligence in human behavior.”
• According to Elaine Rich, “AI is the study of how to make computers
do things at which, at the moment, people are better”
Artificial Intelligence

An AI System should have:

Capability to provide reason about something
Capability of Natural Language Processing
Capability of learning from past experience
Capability of self correction
View of AI falls under four categories
Thinking Humanly: The cognitive modelling
approach
• If we are going to say that a given program thinks like a human, we must have
some way of determining how human thinks.
• We need to get inside the actual working of human minds.
• Two way of doing this is:
Predicting and testing human behavior (cognitive science)
Identification of neurological data (cognitive neuro science)
• If the program’s input/output and timing behavior matches human behavior, that
is evidence that some of the program’s mechanisms may also be operating in
humans.
• Activities that we associate with human thinking are decision-making, problem
solving, learning, etc.
Acting Humanly: The Turing Test Approach
The Turing test is a method for determining whether or not a
computer is capable of thinking like a human.
The test is named after Alan Turing, an English mathematician who
pioneered artificial intelligence during the 1940s and 1950s, and who
is credited with devising the original version of test.
According to this kind of test, a computer is deemed to have artificial
intelligence if it can mimic human responses under specific
conditions.
Thinking Rationally: The “laws of thought
approach”
Undeniable reasoning process
The study of mental faculties through the use of computational models.
The study of computations that make it possible to perceive, reason and act.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to attempt to codify
“right thinking”
His famous syllogisms provided patterns for argument structures that always
gave correct conclusions given correct premises.
For example, “Socrates is a man; all men are mortal; therefore Socrates is
mortal.” These laws of thought were supposed to govern the operation of
the mind, and initiated the field of logic.
Acting Rationally: The rational agent
approach
Acting rationally means acting so as to achieve one’s goals, given
one’s beliefs.
An agent is just something that perceives and acts.
In this approach, AI is viewed as the study and construction of
rational agents.
The Turing Test Approach
The Turing Test Approach
Consider the following scenario:
There are two rooms, A and B.
One of the rooms contain a computer. The other contains a human.
The interrogator is outside and does not know which one is a computer.
He can ask questions through a teletype and receives answers from both A and B.
The interrogator needs to identify whether A or B are humans.
To pass the Turing test, the machine has to fool the interrogator into believing that
it is human.
The unofficial “Total Turing Test” adds that the interrogation should also involve
visual activity and physical interaction.
The Turing Test Approach
To pass a Turing test, a computer must have following capabilities:
• Natural Language Processing:
Must be able to communicate in English successfully
• Knowledge representation:
To store what it knows and hears.
• Automated reasoning:
Answer the Questions based on the stored information.
• Machine learning:
Must be able to adapt in new circumstances
AI and related fields/ Foundations of AI
Philosophy: Logic, methods of reasoning, mind as physical system,
foundations of learning, language, rationality.
Mathematics: Formal representation and proof algorithms, computation,
(un)decidability, (in)tractability, probability.
Economics: utility, decision theory, rational economic agents
Neuroscience: neurons as information processing units
Psychology: how do people behave, perceive, process Cognitive Science
information, represent knowledge
Control theory: design systems that maximize an objective function over
time
Linguistics: knowledge representation, grammar
Brief History of AI
• The term “Artificial Intelligence” was used for the first time in 1956 by
an American scientist John McCarthy who is referred to as the Father
of AI.
• McCarthy also come up with a programming language called LISP (i.e.
List-Processing), which is still used to program computer in AI that
allow the computer to learn.
• Further, the major achievements can be listed as below:
Brief History of AI
Brief History of AI
Application of AI
Artificial intelligence has been used in a wide range of fields including
medical diagnosis, stock trading, robot control, law, remote sensing,
scientific discovery and toys.
Many thousands of AI applications are deeply embedded in the
infrastructure of every industry.
In the late 90s and early 21st century, AI technology became widely
used as elements of larger systems, but the field is rarely credited for
these successes.
Application of AI
1. Game Playing
• Machines can play master level chess. There is some AI in them, but
they play well against people mainly through brute force method,
looking at hundreds of thousands of positions.
2. Speech Recognition
• It is possible to instruct some computers using speech. In 1990s,
computer speech recognition reached a practical level for limited
purposes.
Application of AI
3. Understanding Natural Language
To perform many natural language processing tasks such as machine
translation, summarization, information extraction, word sense
disambiguation need the AI in machine.
4. Computer Vision
Computer vision is concerned with the theory behind artificial system
that extract information from images. The image data can take many
forms such as videos sequences views from multiple cameras and
data from a medical scanner.
Application of AI
5. Expert System
Expert system needs the AI to perform its task. One of the first expert system
was MYCIN in 1974 which diagnosis bacterial infections of the blood and
suggests treatments.
6. Finance
Financial institutions have long used artificial neural network systems to
detect charges or claims outside of the norm, flagging these for human
investigation.
Use of AI in banking can be traced back to 1987 when Security Pacific
National Bank in USA set-up a Fraud Prevention Task force to counter the
unauthorized use of debit cards.
Application of AI
7. Hospitals and medicine
Artificial neural networks are used as clinical decision support systems for
medical diagnosis, such as in Concept Processing technology.
Other tasks in medicine that can potentially be performed by artificial
intelligence include:
• Computer-aided interpretation of medical images. Such systems help scan
digital images, e.g. from computed tomography, for typical appearances
and to highlight conspicuous sections, such as possible diseases. A typical
application is the detection of a tumor.
• Heart sound analysis
• Companion robots for the care of the elderly
Application of AI
8. Music
The evolution of music has always been affected by technology.
 With AI, scientists are trying to make the computer emulate the activities of the
skillful musician.
Composition, performance, music theory, sound processing are some of the major
areas on which research in Music and Artificial Intelligence are focusing.
9. Aviation
The Air Operations Division (AOD) uses AI for the rule based expert systems.
The AOD has use for artificial intelligence for replacement operators for fighting
and training simulators, mission management aids, support systems for tactical
decision making, and post processing of the simulator data into symbolic
summaries.
Application of AI
10. Identification Technologies
• ID cards
 e.g., ATM cards
 can be a nuisance and security risk:
cards can be lost, stolen, passwords forgotten, etc
• Biometric Identification
 walk up to a locked door
camera
fingerprint device
microphone
 computer uses your biometric signature for identification face, eyes, fingerprints, voice
pattern
Definition and Importance of Knowledge and
Learning
Knowledge Definition
“The fact or condition of knowing something with familiarity gained
through experience or association.” (Webster’s Dictionary, 1988)
(Knowing something via seeing, hearing, touching, feeling, and
tasting)
“The fact or condition of being aware of something” . (Ex. Sun is hot,
balls are round, sky is blue,…)
Definition and Importance of Knowledge and
Learning
Knowledge Storing
Natural language for people:
• Symbols for computer: a number or character string that represents
an object or idea (Internal representation of the knowledge).
• The core concepts: mapping from facts to an internal computer
representation and also to a form that people can understand.
Definition and Importance of Knowledge and
Learning
Knowledge Representation
• Simple facts or complex relationships
• Mathematical formulas or rules for natural language syntax
• Associations between related concepts
• Inheritance hierarchies between classes of objects
• Knowledge is not a “one-size-fits-all” proposition
Definition and Importance of Knowledge and
Learning
Knowledge
• Example: automated language translation (English <-----> Japanese)
• ”My name is Hari bahadur."
• ”Madan bahadur is my friend."

word-by-word translation
• Must determine what this means using knowledge of human discourse
in English
• Then generate Japanese form of that meaning.
Definition and Importance of Knowledge and
Learning
Knowledge
• Note: knowledge != data.
Example: determining voltage from current and resistance

• Knowledge is more compact and faster to manipulate.

• Knowledge is more general (that is, may be applied to situations we have not been programmed
for).
• Important feature of intelligence: creating knowledge from data.
Definition and Importance of Knowledge and
Learning
Knowledge
• “Heuristics for making good decisions when no algorithm exists for doing so“.
• That is, for many of the above problem, we must often make intelligent guesses due
to:
• Lack of complete knowledge about how to solve problem.
• Lack of complete data about current situation.
• Lack of time to completely explore situation.
Example: walking across room.
• Do not have complete knowledge of physical laws associated with motion.
• Do not have complete knowledge of room (such as what might be behind objects).
• Do not have time to map out and compare all possible paths through room.
Definition and Importance of Knowledge and
Learning
What is Learning?
Learning is one of those everyday terms which is broadly and vaguely used in the
English language
• Learning is making useful changes in our minds.
• Learning is constructing or modifying representations of what is being
experienced.
• Learning is the phenomenon of knowledge acquisition in the absence of explicit
programming.
Herbert Simon, 1983- Learning denotes changes in the system that are adaptive in
the sense that they enable the system to do the same task or tasks drawn from the
same population more efficiently and more effectively next time.
Definition and Importance of Knowledge and
Learning
Learning involves 3 factors:
Changes
• Learning changes the learner: for machine learning the problem is determining
the nature of these changes and how to best represent them
Generalization
• Learning leads to generalization: performance must improve not only on the
same task but on similar tasks
Improvement
• Learning leads to improvements: machine learning must address the
possibility that changes may degrade performance and find ways to prevent it.
Intelligent Agents
Agent
An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment. The
agents act in their environment. The environment may contain other
agents.
An agent is anything that can be viewed as:
• perceiving its environment through sensors and
• acting upon that environment through actuators
Agents
Human agent:
eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors;
hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts for actuators
Robotic agent:
cameras and infrared range finders for sensors;
Various motors for actuators
Software agent:
Has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions
Agents and environments

Performance Measure: determines how successful the agent is.

Behavior: activities the agent performs to achieve the goal
Percepts: formation of concepts based on the inputs.
Percept Sequence: set of all the perceptions till date
Agent Function: mapping of perception
Agents and environments
• The agent function maps from percept histories to actions:

• The agent program runs on the physical architecture to produce f,

agent = architecture + program
• Architecture = the machinery that an agent executes on.
• Agent Program = an implementation of an agent function
Vacuum Cleaner World

Percepts: location and state of the environment, e.g., [A,Dirty], [B,Clean]

Actions: Left, Right, Suck, NoOp
Rational agents
Rational Agent:
 For each possible percept sequence, a rational agent should select an
action that is expected to maximize its performance measure, based
on the evidence provided by the percept sequence and whatever
built-in knowledge the agent has.
Performance measure:
An objective criterion for success of an agent's behavior. E.g.,
performance measure of a vacuum-cleaner agent could be amount of
dirt cleaned up, amount of time taken, amount of electricity
consumed, amount of noise generated, etc.
Rational agents
Rationality is distinct from omniscience (all-knowing with infinite
knowledge)
Agents can perform actions in order to modify future percepts so as
to obtain useful information (information gathering, exploration)
An agent is autonomous if its behavior is determined by its own
percepts & experience (with ability to learn and adapt) without
depending solely on build-in knowledge
Task Environment
• Before we design an intelligent agent, we must specify its “task environment”.
• Environment must be:
Fully observable
• An agent’s sensors give it access to the complete state of the environment at each point in
time
 Deterministic
• The next state of the environment is completely determined by the current state and the
action executed by the agent.
 Episodic
• The agent’s experience is divided into atomic ”episodes” (each episode consists of the agent
perceiving and then performing a single action
 Static
• The environment is unchanged while an agent is deliberating.
Task Environment
PEAS
• PEAS define task environments about formulating the performance of
intelligent agents. It stands for:
Performance measure
Environment
Actuators
Sensors
Task Environment
Q. Point out the task of designing an automated taxi driver according to
PEAS description.
A. Agent= taxi-driver
• Performance measure: Safe, fast, legal, comfortable trip, maximize
profits
• Environment: Roads, other traffic, pedestrians, customers
• Actuators: Steering wheel, accelerator, brake, signal, horn
• Sensors: Cameras, sonar, speedometer, GPS, odometer, engine
sensors
Task Environment
Q. Point out the task of designing a Medical diagnosis system according
to PEAS description.
A. Agent= Medical diagnosis system
• Performance measure: Healthy patient, minimize costs, lawsuits
• Environment: Patient, hospital, staff
• Actuators: Screen display (questions, tests, diagnoses, treatments,
referrals)
• Sensors: Keyboard (entry of symptoms, findings, patient's answers)
Task Environment
Q. Point out the task of designing a Part picking Robot according to
PEAS description.
• A. Agent = Part-picking robot
• Performance measure: Percentage of parts in correct bins
• Environment: Conveyor belt with parts, bins
• Actuators: Jointed arm and hand
• Sensors: Camera, joint angle sensor
Types of Agent
Simple Reflex Agent
Types of Agent
Model Based Agent
Types of Agent
Goal Based Agent
Types of Agent
Utility Based Agent
References
• E. Rich and Knight, Artificial Intelligence, McGraw Hill, 1991.
• D. W. Patterson, Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems, Prentice
Hall, 2001.
• P. H. Winston, Artificial Intelligence, Addison Wesley, 1984.
• Stuart Russel and Peter Norvig, Artificial Intelligence A Modern
Approach, Pearson
• Ivan Bratko, PROLOG Programming for Artificial Intelligence, Addison
Wesley, 2001.
• Leon Sterling, Ehud Shapiro, The Art of PROLOG: Advanced
Programming Techniques, Prentice Hall, 1996.